Roman Britain's Missing Legion: What Really Happened to IX Hispana?

Introduction

This book is an historical detective story concerning the mysterious disappearance of the 5,500 men of legio IX Hispana, one of Rome’s most famous military units. Uniquely among the Roman legions, of which there were over time more than sixty (and at any one time in the Empire a maximum of thirty-three), we have no idea what happened to it. It simply disappears from history.

This historical conundrum has grabbed the attention of academics, scholars and the wider public for hundreds of years. One of the first to write on the subject was British antiquarian John Horsley who published his Britannia Romana or the Roman Antiquities of Britain in 1732. In this work he detailed when each Roman legion arrived and left Britain. However, he noted that there was no leaving date for legio IX Hispana, a fact he found difficult to explain. Then, in the 1850s, the renowned German scholar Theodor Mommsen published his multi-volume The History of Rome. In this he speculated that the IXth legion had been the subject of an uprising by the Brigantes tribe of northern Britain around AD 117/118, it being wiped out in its legionary fortress at York (Roman Eboracum). Mommsen speculated it was this event that prompted the new Emperor Hadrian to later visit Britain in AD 122 and initiate the construction of Hadrian’s Wall.

Such was Mommsen’s reputation that his theory became the received wisdom regarding the legion’s fate well into the twentieth century AD, when it was then popularized by a number of historical fiction works. One above all others cemented the fate of legio IX Hispana in the popular imagination. This was The Eagle of the Ninth, the seminal work published by children’s author Rosemary Sutcliff in 1954. Her second book, this told the story of her hero Marcus Flavius Aquila who travelled north of Hadrian’s Wall to track down the fate his father’s legion, legio IX Hispana. Her conceit was that the IXth legion had been annihilated in the far north of Britain, beyond the northern border rather than in York, during yet another uprising. This novel proved as popular with adults as with children, capturing the imagination of an entire generation, and is still a best seller to this day. It inspired numerous subsequent works, including Karl Edward Wagner’s 1976 Legion from the Shadows and Amanda Cockrell’s 1979 The Legions of the Mist. The story of the IXth legion also became the subject of an eponymous BBC TV series in 1977, and later received the attentions of Hollywood with blockbusters such as 2010’s Centurion and 2011’s The Eagle. It was even the focus of a Dr Who episode in 2017.

Such mention of these various antiquarian and modern references and treatments leads elegantly to a wider description of the sources used in this book. Firstly, given the long chronology within which the story of the IXth legion sits, we are lucky to have multiple ancient sources available. These always come with the usual health warnings regarding their variable accuracy and reliability, but are nevertheless valuable.

An important early source in the story of the first IXth legion (that detailed in this book is actually the second to exist) is Julius Caesar himself in his own The Conquest of Gaul and Civil War, together with his contemporaries Cicero with his letters and various works and Sallust with his Catiline’s Conspiracy, and also Caesar’s legate Aulus Hirtius who added a chapter to The Gallic War and may have edited On the African War and On the Spanish War (both narrating Caesar’s activities there). Moving onto the wider story of legio IX Hispana, other key ancient sources include Marcus Velleius Paterculus and his late first century BC/early first century AD Roman History, Plutarch with his early second century AD Lives, Cornelius Tacitus with his Annals, Histories and Agricola (mid-late first century AD to early second century), Suetonius with his Twelve Caesars, and Appian with his Roman History written in the mid-second century AD. Also of use are Cassius Dio with his Roman History, and Herodian with his History of the Roman Empire. Another key source is the now anonymous Historia Augusta, a collection of biographies of Roman Emperors, junior colleagues, designated heirs and usurpers from the accession of Hadrian in AD 117 to the accession of Diocletian in AD 284. Written towards the end of the fourth century AD in Latin, modern scholars believe it was based on a single work dating to the period of Dio and Herodian. The leading twentieth-century historian and classicist Sir Ronald Syme believed the author to be an individual he dubbed ‘Ignotus’, while others favour a lost work by the Senator and historian Marius Maximus, at least for part of it. The Historia Augusta is thought particularly unreliable, and frequently reads as though the author is more interested in entertaining his audience than reporting historical fact (Pausche, 2009, 115). To the Historia Augusta we can also add the works of the later Latin chroniclers Flavius Eutropius, Aurelius Victor and Paulus Orosius. The first two (and given their use as sources by the third, that too by default) likely used as a major source the so-called ‘Kaisergeschichte’ hypothetical set of short histories now lost. Burgess (1993, 491) argues this was written between AD 337 and AD 340. Again, these sources should be considered with care, especially given the length of time between the events they describe and the date they were written (particularly relevant given the focus here on the fate of legio IX Hispana).

In terms of modern sources, the various works of Anthony R. Birley have been most useful, particularly his definitive 2005 edition of The Roman Government of Britain, while as ever David Mattingly’s 2006 An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire has proved invaluable. Other key modern works have included Patricia Southern’s 2013 Roman Britain, Sam Moorhead and David Stuttard’s 2012 The Romans Who Shaped Britain, and Duncan B. Campbell’s 2018 The Fate of the Ninth.

Meanwhile, the many works on the Roman military of Adrian Goldsworthy and Ross Cowan have provided much of the vital detail needed when considering the daily lives of the legionaries of the IXth legion. Regarding the legions themselves, one work has proved particularly useful, this is 2012’s The Complete Roman Legions by Nigel Pollard and Joanne Berry. Meanwhile, with reference to one specific chapter, the work of Dominic Perring has defined Chapter 4, with his breakthrough work referenced there. Richard Hingley’s 2018 Londinium: A Biography has also proved invaluable in that part of the narrative. Meanwhile, Tim Cornell and John Matthews’ Atlas of the Roman World has provided much detail regarding the far-flung provinces of the Empire where the IXth legion might have met its fate.

To the above sources of contemporary research used in my attempt to track down what really happened to legio IX Hispana I can add my own academic research over the last fifteen years through my MA in War Studies with King’s College London, MA in Archaeology with University College London, and PhD in Classics and Archaeology from the University of Kent, where I am honoured to be an Honorary Research Fellow. Additionally, my recently published works on Roman themes have proved a fertile source of new information regarding the IXth legion and its times, including Sea Eagles of Empire: The Classis Britannica and the Battles for Britain, Empire State: How the Roman Military Built an Empire, Septimius Severus in Scotland: the Northern Campaigns of the First Hammer of the Scots, Roman Legionaries, and the shortly to be published Pertinax: the Son of a Slave Who Became Roman Emperor.

Meanwhile, other specific sources of information on the IXth legion have included the archaeological record, epigraphy, analogy, and where appropriate anecdote. In particular, epigraphy plays a key role in the history of the career and later disappearance of legio IX Hispana. The word epigraphy, derived from the ancient Greek word for inscription, describes the study of the latter as a form of writing. In that regard we are fortunate that the Romans were prolific inscribers in stone, which was an everyday occurrence across the Empire. Such inscriptions were used in the widest range of circumstances, ranging from details of the deceased on funerary monuments, through to altars referencing the lives of those who set them up, to the detailing on buildings of the individuals who funded them or built them. Roman inscriptions are particularly useful in this work as they not only detail the individual, individuals or units concerned, but almost always name the reigning emperor, including his honorific and other titles at the time. When cross-referenced with other evidence, this provides a fairly precise way of dating when the inscription was made.

Roman academics have long used epigraphy in their studies and in the 1850s Theodor Mommsen, referenced above given his early interest in the IXth legion, developed an international scheme for referencing each individual inscription called the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) project. From that point each inscription recorded was referenced with a CIL number. In the 1920s scholars in Britain then diverged from this system with their own method of recording Roman epigraphy here, this was called the Roman Inscriptions in Britain (RIB) project. They were then followed by their French counterparts who dubbed their inscriptions L’Année Epigraphique (AE). Thus the various inscriptions cited in this work are numbered as either CIL, RIB or AE. Such inscriptions have been specifically used by some scholars in the discipline of prosopography, the study of a group of persons or characters within a particular historical or literary context through their careers, in this case detailed on epigraphy. Their work has shed much light on the careers of various officers of the IXth legion.

In terms of housekeeping regarding my investigation into the fate of the IXth legion, this story takes place in the late Roman Republic and the Principate period of the Roman Empire. The latter name is derived from the term princeps (chief or master), referencing the Emperor as the leading citizen of the Empire following the Senate’s acclamation of Augustus as the first emperor in 27 BC. While not an official term, later emperors often assumed it on their accession, it clearly being a conceit allowing the Empire to be explained away as a simple continuance of the preceding Republic. The Principate Empire featured a number of distinct dynasties and phases that provide a chronological template when studying the disappearance of legio IX Hispana. These are (Kean and Frey, 2005, 18):

•The Julio-Claudian Dynasty, from the accession of Augustus in 27 BC to the death of Nero in AD 68.

•The ‘Year of the Four Emperors’ in AD 69, with Vespasian the ultimate victor.

•The Flavian Dynasty, from Vespasian’s accession through to the death of his son Domitian in AD 96.

•The Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty, from the accession of Nerva in AD 96 to the death of Hadrian in AD 138.

•The Antonine Dynasty, from the accession of Antoninus Pius in AD 138 through to the assassination of Commodus in AD 192.

•The ‘Year of the Five Emperors’ in AD 193, with Pertinax the first incumbent.

•The Severan Dynasty, from the accession of Septimius Severus as the ultimate victor in the ‘Year of the Five Emperors’ through to the assassination of Severus Alexander in AD 235.

•The ‘Crisis of the 3rd Century’, from the death of Severus Alexander to the accession of Diocletian in AD 284. This was a period when the Empire was under great stress from a multitude of issues that collectively threatened its very survival. These included civil war and multiple usurpations, the first deep and large scale incursions into imperial territory by Germans and Goths over the Rhine and Danube, the deadly Plague of Cyprian, and the emergence in the east of the Sassanid Persian Empire which presented the Romans with a fully symmetrical threat there for the first time. Collectively they caused a major economic crash. The steps taken by Diocletian to drag the Empire out of this chaos, in what is often styled his reformation, were so drastic that from that point we talk of the very different Dominate phase of the Roman Empire.

Meanwhile, given much of the story of legio IX Hispana is played out across the distant frontiers of the Empire, military installations play a key role in its activities. In that regard I have used the current size-based hierarchy as a means of describing their size as they occur in the narrative. Starting with the largest, these are 20 ha-plus legionary fortresses for one or more legions. Such fortresses were built around the fringes of the Empire, not only to provide a launch pad for campaigns of Imperial conquest and to defend the Imperial frontier, but also to keep the legions deliberately as far from Rome as possible, the aim here being to diminish the possibility of a successful usurpation. In that regard it was very unusual for any provincial governor or legate to command more than four legions at any one time, though note the huge force deployed to defeat the Third ‘bar Kokhba’ Jewish Revolt detailed in Chapter 6 (Cornell and Matthews, 1982, 81). Meanwhile, next down the scale were the 12 ha-plus vexillation fortresses holding a mixed force of legionary cohorts and auxiliaries, then the one ha-plus forts for outpost garrisons, and finally fortlets for part of an auxiliary unit. Military settlements associated with such fortifications are called a canaba when connected with a legionary fortress, and a vicus elsewhere.

In terms of the built environment, this again features heavily in the story of IXth legion as it travelled across the territory of the Republic and Empire. Here, larger towns are referenced as one of three types. These are coloniae chartered towns for military veterans (in Britain for example Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln), municipia chartered towns of mercantile origin (in Britain for example St Albans) and civitas capitals, these last the Roman equivalent of a County town featuring the local government of a region (in Britain for example Caerwent, Silchester and Canterbury). Settlement below this level is referenced as either a small town (defined as a variety of diverse settlements which often had an association with a specific activity such as administration, industry or religion), villa estates or non-villa estates.

Staying with human geography, the IXth legion’s chronological journey was played out across the provinces of the later Roman Republic and Principate Empire. The word province itself provides interesting insight into the Roman attitude to its Empire, the Latin provincia referencing land ‘for conquering’ (Matyszak, 2009, 60). There were actually two kinds of province by the time of the Principate Empire. These were Senatorial provinces left to the Senate to administer, whose governors were officially called proconsuls and remained in post for a year, and Imperial provinces retained under the supervision of the emperor. The emperor personally chose the governors for these, they often being styled legati Augusti pro praetor to officially mark them out as deputies of the emperor. Senatorial provinces tended to be those deep within the Empire where less trouble was expected. At the beginning of the first century AD these were:

•Baetica in southern Spain

•Narbonensis in southern France

•Corsica et Sardinia

•Africa Proconsularis in North Africa

•Cyrenaica et Creta

•Epirus

•Macedonia

•Achaia

•Asia in western Anatolia

•Bithynia et Pontus.

In this work I will specifically use proconsul to reference the governor of these Senatorial provinces, and governor to reference this position in an Imperial province.

Staying with classical and modern name use, I have been pragmatic in the narrative to ensure that the work is as accessible as possible for the reader. By way of example, where there is a classical version of a modern name for a given city or town I have used the modern name, referencing the Roman name at the point of its first use. However, with common and well-understood classical names for a given role, for example legate (general), I use that throughout the work, providing the modern name in brackets at the first point of use as illustrated here. One final very specific point to make here regarding names relates to how the Roman’s themselves styled the IXth legion. In normal circumstances it was called legio IX Hispana, though in a couple of specific cases legio VIIII Hispana was used. The former is used throughout this work, while the latter is explained in detail in Chapter 4.

Moving on to the chapter flow of the book, this Introduction is followed by two background chapters to enable the reader to follow the subsequent evidential trail with me as I track the fate of the IXth legion. The first details the Roman military of the Principate phase of Empire, this including a description of the original IXth legion, and then some detail on the early history of its successor, the IXth legion covered by this book. I then look at early Roman Britain given this provided the setting for much of the activities of legio IX Hispana before it disappeared. I then Sequentially test to breaking point, in four successive chapters, the key hypotheses regarding the fate of the IXth legion. These are that it was lost or disbanded in the north of Britain, that it was lost or disbanded in an insurrection in the south of Britain, that it was lost or disbanded on the Rhine or Danube, or that it was lost or disbanded in the east. At the end of each of these four chapters I have a closing discussion regarding the evidence presented there. I then gather these together in the Conclusion where I set out my own opinion, based on all that has gone before in the book, about what really happened to the IXth legion. The book then ends with a timeline of the late Roman Republic and Empire, and a full bibliography.

Lastly, here I would like to thank the many people who have helped make this detective story regarding the fate of legio IX Hispana possible. As always this includes Professor Andrew Lambert of the War Studies Department at KCL, Dr Andrew Gardner at UCL’s Institute of Archaeology, and Dr Steve Willis at the University of Kent. Next, my publisher and friend Phil Sidnell at Pen & Sword Books. Also, Professor Sir Barry Cunliffe of the School of Archaeology at Oxford University and Professor Martin Millett at the Faculty of Classics, Cambridge University for their encouragement. Next, my patient proofreader and lovely wife Sara, and my dad John Elliott and friend Francis Tusa, both companions in my various escapades to research this book. As with all of my literary work, all have contributed greatly and freely, enabling this work on the fate of the IXth legion to reach fruition. Finally I would like to thank my family, especially my tolerant wife Sara once again and children Alex (also a student of military history) and Lizzie.

Thank you all.

Simon Elliott

January 2020

Chapter 1

Background: The Principate Military

The IXth was a classic legion of the Principate period of the Roman Empire, though had its roots in the earlier Roman Republic. It fought across a wide range of geographies and against many different enemies of Rome before its mysterious disappearance. To enable the reader to fully understand its nature, this first Chapter therefore considers the Roman military of the later Republic and early Empire, beginning with an analysis of that most elite soldier of the ancient world, the Roman legionary. There then follows a specific consideration of the early history of legio IX Hispana, designed to set the scene for its later exploits. The Chapter then concludes with a discussion of the Principate Empire troop types that supported the legions when on campaign and in battle, namely the auxiliaries and regional fleets.

The Roman Legionary

The Roman legionary of the later Republic and early Empire was a heavy infantryman whose battlefield role was, more often than not, fighting other lines of battle heavy infantry. His appearance by the late first century BC was the result of over 700 years of military evolution in terms of equipment and tactics. This reflected the fact that, even when the Romans lost in war or battle, they were quick adopters of opposing ideas and technology, ensuring they usually won in the long run. This progression featured five distinct phases:

•The Tullian system devised by Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome and the city’s second Etrusco-Roman king who reigned from 575 BC to 535 BC. This was based on his Servian Constitution, with these first Roman armies built around an Etruscan-style hoplite phalanx of armoured spearman, wealthy citizen cavalry, and four classes of supporting troops.

•The Camillan System of Marcus Furius Camillus who became consular tribune for the first time in 401 BC. He completely reformed the Roman military system after its devastating defeat by Brennus’ Senones Gauls at the Battle of Allia in 390 BC, and the traumatic sack of Rome that followed. Camillus introduced the manipular legion of 3,000 men (this later growing to 5,000), featuring three classes of legionary, this term being applicable for the first time from this