Lamentations: A Commentary

LAMENTATIONS

THE OLD TESTAMENT LIBRARY

Editorial Advisory Board

WILLIAM P. BROWN

JAMES L. MAYS

CAROL A. NEWSOM

DAVID L. PETERSEN

Adele Berlin

Lamentations

A Commentary

Westminster John Knox Press

LOUISVILLE • LONDON

© Adele Berlin

Hardback edition 2002

Paperback edition 2004

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Westminster John Knox Press, 100 Witherspoon Street, Louisville, Kentucky 40202-1396.

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ISBN 0-664-22974-3

CONTENTS

Preface

Abbreviations

Bibliography

Introduction

1. The Poetry of Lamentations

2. Gender and Suffering

Excursus 1: Bat-ṣiyyôn, the Personified Zion

Excursus 2: Jerusalem’s Residents: A Sociological Profile

3. Mourning as a Religious Concept

4. The Theology of Destruction and Exile

The Paradigm of Purity

The Political Paradigm

5. Lamentations in Literary Context

The Biblical Context: Qinah, Communal Lament, and Jerusalem Lament

The Mesopotamian Context

6. Authorship

7. Date and Purpose

8. Lamentations at Qumran

Translation and Commentary

Lamentations 1:1–22: Mourning and Shame

Lamentations 2:1–22: Anger

Lamentations 3:1–66: Exile

Lamentations 4:1–22: Degradation

Lamentations 5:1–22 Prayer

Indexes

PREFACE

While Lamentations has received its share of exegesis, it is surprising that a text as rich as this one in poetic attributes has received so little literary attention, aside from studies of its formal structures. The vivid imagery and abundance of metaphors cry out for explication, for it is largely in the images, the multifaceted associations that they evoke, and the movement of the discourse that the meaning of the book resides. This commentary will concentrate on these literary aspects of the book, but not solely for their aesthetic value. Behind the metaphors and other literary tropes lies a conceptual world of religious beliefs. One of my goals is to discover the religious worldview that informs the imagery of the book and to explicate the imagery in light of that worldview. Frames of reference such as the concept of purity, mourning, repentance, and the Davidic covenant are useful in this effort.

I will not belabor the historical background against which the poems are set, although I will mention it when it helps to clarify a reference. Lamentations is certainly not the best historical source for the destruction of Jerusalem, and was never intended as such. It assumes knowledge of the events leading up to and following the destruction, but it has its own way of presenting them and its own purpose for doing so, and we should try to fathom why the book puts things the way it does.

Historical-critical questions will also be slighted, not because they are unimportant, but because there is little evidence to pinpoint either the absolute or the relative dating of the individual chapters or their parts. We have no information on how the book came to be composed, except that it seems likely that the five chapters once existed as independent poems.

A commentary need not be encyclopedic. I have not attempted to represent every interpretation put forth or every issue debated in the scholarly literature. Indeed, a commentary gets its character from what is selected for comment, both from the text and from the secondary literature. That is why there are, and can be, so many commentaries. My approach is literary, with emphasis on understanding the poetic discourse, vocabulary, and imagery of the Masoretic Text. Toward this goal, I often compare the passage in question with other biblical passages and with extrabiblical sources from the ancient Near East. These comparisons reveal what in Lamentations is conventional and what is innovative, and they shed light on the broader cultural context from which the book emerged and in which it should be understood. Philological, grammatical, and text-critical issues will, of course, be dealt with, but not at length if previous commentaries have already addressed them adequately. Questions of poetic form and structure—types of parallelism, word patterns, acrostics, meter—have lost their urgency, having been studied so much in the last thirty years. The form-critical question of whether Lamentations belongs to the genre of communal lament, funeral dirge, or some combination of the two goes back to the work of Hedwig Jahnow, and was developed considerably by Claus Westermann, and more recently by Erhard Gerstenberger. We seem to be at an impasse on this question, which suggests that it may be more productive to consider the issue of genre from a different perspective. Another issue that has been debated for some time, without resolution, is the degree of influence of the Sumerian city laments on biblical laments. Both genre and Mesopotamian influence remain important issues, and can be usefully discussed together, as in the monograph by F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, Weep, O Daughter of Zion. In fact, Lamentations should be studied in an even wider literary context, beyond lament literature (see Introduction, Lamentations in Literary Context).

Feminist criticism is now an accepted form of biblical study in the academy, and a branch of it is related to literary criticism. While there is not a large body of feminist work on Lamentations, the work on prophetic literature and some of the general observations and issues that feminist interpretation has raised are usefully applied to the interpretation of Lamentations. This is not a feminist commentary per se, but it will draw on some feminist interpretation of the female imagery that is so prominent in the book.

Quite a number of new studies of Lamentations have appeared during the last decade or so, representing a variety of interpretive approaches, and they form the scholarly context in which this volume was written. They include the commentaries of F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, E. Gerstenberger, D. Hillers, Y. Z. Moskowitz, K. O’Connor (NIB), I. Provan, and J. Renkema, and the monographs of F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, J. Hunter, N. C. Lee, T. Linafelt, X. H. T. Pham, and C. Westermann. Their influence on my understanding of Lamentations is more pervasive than specific acknowledgments can document. These recent works testify to the increasing interest in literary matters (broadly defined) that characterizes much recent biblical exegesis, but none privileges literary interpretation to the degree that the present commentary does. Its emphasis is on finding new insights into passages whose meaning and literary effect was never fully plumbed before.

I am grateful to Chip Dobbs-Allsopp, Ed Greenstein, Magnar Kartveit, Jacob Klein, Nancy C. Lee, and Kathleen O’Connor for making available to me their unpublished work. Special thanks to Kathleen O’Connor and Chip Dobbs-Allsopp for access to their commentaries prior to their publication. I had the privilege of teaching Lamentations to students at the Baltimore Hebrew University and at MaTan in Jerusalem. Their questions and observations pushed me to make more sense of the text, and they served as a sounding board for some of my interpretations. I thank the editors of the Old Testament Library series for the invitation to write this volume and Carey C. Newman, Senior Editor for Academic Books at Westminster John Knox Press, for shepherding the book through the publication process. A special word of gratitude to Carol Newsom, the editor of this volume, who read the manuscript with great care and offered sage advice on many points. The volume has been the beneficiary of her considerable knowledge and her consummate good sense. My under-graduate assistants at the University of Maryland, Abbey Bittel and Gary Libbin, provided much-appreciated help in the preparation of the manuscript. As always, my husband encouraged and helped me at every step, for which I am ever grateful.

Adele Berlin

ABBREVIATIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Commentaries and Monographs on Lamentations

Albrektson, Bertil. Studies in the Text and Theology of the Book of Lamentations. Lund: Gleerup, 1963.

Bettan, Israel. The Five Scrolls: A Commentary on the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Cincinnati: Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1950.

Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W. Lamentations. Interpretation. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. 2002.

———. Lamentations, annotations in The New Oxford Annotated Bible, 3d ed. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Pp. 1167–79 Hebrew Bible.

———. Weep, O Daughter of Zion: A Study of the City-Lament Genre in the Hebrew Bible. Biblica et orientalia 44. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute Press, 1993.

Gerstenberger, Erhard S. Psalms, Part 2, and Lamentations. FOTL 15. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001.

Gordis, Robert. The Song of Songs and Lamentations. New York: Ktav, 1974.

Gottlieb, Hans. A Study on the Text of Lamentations. Translated by John Sturdy. Acta Jutlandica 48. Theology Series 12. Århus: Det Laerde Selskab, 1978.

Gottwald, Norman K. Studies in the Book of Lamentations. SBT 1/14. Chicago: Allenson; London: SCM, 1954.

———. Lamentations. Pp. 646–51 in Harper’s Bible Commentary, edited by James L. Mays, et al. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.

Guinan, Michael D. Lamentations. Pp. 558–62 in The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, edited by Raymond E. Brown et al. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990.

Harrison, R. K. Jeremiah and Lamentations. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1973.

Hillers, Delbert R. Lamentations. AB 7A. New York: Doubleday, 1972; revised edition, 1992. (The 1992 edition is cited unless otherwise noted.)

Hunter, Jannie. Faces of a Lamenting City: The Development and Coherence of the Book of Lamentations. Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentums 39. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1996.

Kaiser, Otto. Klagelieder. In Helmer Ringgren and Otto Kaiser, Das Hohe Lied/Klagelieder/Das Buch Esther, pp. 91–198. 4th ed. Das Alte Testament Deutsch 16/2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992.

Klein, J., ed. Lamentations (in Hebrew). Encyclopedia Olam Hatanakh. 16A: 107–59. Ramat Gan: Revivim, n.d.

Kraus, H.-J. Klagelieder (Threni). 3d ed. Biblischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament 20. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1968.

Landy, Francis. Lamentations. In The Literary Guide to the Bible, edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode, pp. 329–34. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1987.

Lee, Nancy C. The Singers of Lamentations: Cities under Siege, from Ur to Jerusalem to Sarajevo. Ph.D. dissertation, Union Theological Seminary and Presbyterian School of Christian Education. Richmond, Va., May 2000.

Linafeldt, Tod. Surviving Lamentations: Catastrophe, Lament, and Protest in the Afterlife of a Biblical Book. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Martin-Achard, Robert, and S. Paul Re’emi. God’s People in Crisis: A Commentary on the Book of Amos. A Commentary on the Book of Lamentations. International Theological Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Edinburgh: Handsel, 1984.

Moskowitz, Yehiel Zvi. Lamentations (in Hebrew). Five Megillot. Da˓at Miqra Series. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1990.

O’Connor, Kathleen M. Lamentations. NIB 6:1011–72. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001.

———. Lamentations. Pp. 178–82 in The Women’s Bible Commentary, edited by Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox, 1992. (Expanded edition, 1998, pp. 187–91.)

Pham, Xuan Huong Thi. Mourning in the Ancient Near East and the Hebrew Bible. JSOTSup 302. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999.

Provan, Iain W. Lamentations. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991.

Renkema, Johan. Lamentations. Historical Commentary on the Old Testament. Leuven: Peeters, 1998.

Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. New York: United Bible Societies, 1992.

Salters, Robert B. Jonah and Lamentations. Old Testament Guides. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1994.

Westermann, Claus. Lamentations: Issues and Interpretation. Translated by Charles Muenchow. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994. (Translation of Die Klagelieder: Forschungsgeschichte und Auslegung. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1990.)

II. Books and General Monographs

Ackroyd, Peter. Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century B.C. OTL. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968.

Alonso Schökel, Luis. A Manual of Hebrew Poetics. SubBi II. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1988.

Alter, Robert. The Art of Biblical Poetry. New York: Basic Books, 1985.

Anderson, Gary A. A Time to Mourn, a Time to Dance: The Expression of Grief and Joy in Israelite Religion. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991.

Bartlett, John R. Edom and the Edomites. JSOTSup 77. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. 1989.

Berlin, Adele. The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.

Bouzard, Walter C., Jr. We Have Heard with Our Ears, O God: Sources of the Communal Laments in the Psalms. SBLDS 159. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.

Brenner, Athalya, ed. The Feminist Companion to the Latter Prophets. FCB 1/8. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995.

Buber, Salomon. Midrasch Echa Rabbati. Vilna: Romm, 1899.

Cohen, A. Midrash Rabbah. Lamentations. London: Soncino, 1939.

Cohen, Mark E. The Canonical Lamentations of Mesopotamia. 2 vols. Potomac, Md.: CDL, 1988.

———. Sumerian Hymnology: The Eršemma. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. 1981.

Cooper, Jerrold. The Curse of Agade. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.

Edelman, Diana Vikander, ed. You Shall Not Abhor an Edomite for He Is Your Brother: Edom and Seir in History and Tradition. Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies 3. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995.

Eph˓al, Israel. Ke’ir neṣurah. Ha-maṣor vegiluyyav ba-mizraḥ ha-qadum (Siege and Its Ancient Near Eastern Manifestations) [in Hebrew]. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1996.

Ferris, Paul Wayne, Jr. The Genre of Communal Lament in the Bible and the Ancient Near East. SBLDS 127. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.

Fisch, Harold. Poetry with a Purpose. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.

Frymer-Kensky, Tikva. In the Wake of the Goddesses: Women, Culture, and the Biblical Transformation of Pagan Myth. New York: Free Press, 1992.

Galambush, Julie. Jerusalem in the Book of Ezekiel: The City as Yahweh’s Wife. SBLDS 130. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.

Gray, G. B. The Form of Hebrew Poetry. 1915. Reprint, New York: Ktav, 1972.

Grossberg, Daniel. Centripetal and Centrifugal Structures in Biblical Poetry. SBLMS 39. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989.

Jahnow, Hedwig. Das hebräische Leichenlied im Rahmen der Völkerdichtung. BZAW 125. Giessen: Töpelmann, 1923.

Kartveit, Magnar. The Virgin Israel and Her Cognates. Hebrew Construct Chains with Internally Applied Metaphors in the Nomen Regens. Unpublished manuscript.

Klein, Ralph. Israel in Exile. A Theological Interpretation. OBT. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.

Levine, Etan. The Aramaic Version of Lamentations. New York: Hermon, 1976.

Michalowski, Piotr. The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1989.

Miller, Patrick D. They Cried to the Lord: The Form and Theology of Biblical Prayer. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994.

Mintz, Alan. Ḥurban: Responses to Catastrophe in Hebrew Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.

Neusner, Jacob. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Exile and Return in the History of Judaism. Boston: Beacon, 1987.

———. Israel after Calamity: The Book of Lamentations. Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 1995.

Oded, Bustenay. Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1979.

Parpola, Simo, and Kazuko Watanabe. Neo-Assyrian Treaties and Loyalty Oaths. State Archives of Assyria 2. Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 1988.

Ryken, Leland, James C. Wilhoit, and T. Longman III, eds. Dictionary of Biblical Imagery. Downer’s Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1998.

Scott, James M., ed. Exile: Old Testament, Jewish, and Christian Conceptions. JSJSup 56. Leiden: Brill, 1997.

Smith, Daniel L. The Religion of the Landless: The Social Context of the Babylonian Exile. Bloomington, Ind.: Meyer-Stone Books, 1989.

Sommer, Benjamin. A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998.

Tinney, Steve. The Nippur Lament: Royal Rhetoric and Divine Legitimation in the Reign of Išme-Dagon of Isin (1953–1935 B.C.). Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 16. Philadelphia: University Museum, 1996.

Ussishkin, David. The Conquest of Lachish by Sennacherib. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Institute of Archaeology, 1982.

Waltke, Bruce, and Michael O’Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1990.

Watson, Wilfred G. E. Classical Hebrew Poetry. JSOTSup 26. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984.

Weinfeld, Moshe. Deuteronomy 1–11. AB 5. New York: Doubleday, 1991.

Werline, Rodney A. Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism: The Development of a Religious Institution. SBLEJL 13. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.

Willey, Patricia T. Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah. SBLDS 161. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.

III. Articles and Chapters

Ahuvyah, A. "˒ykh yšbh bdd h˓yr rbty ˓m (Lam 1:1)" (How lonely sits the city … full of people) [in Hebrew]. Beth Miqra 24 (1979): 423–25.

Alexander, Philip S. The Textual Tradition of Targum Lamentations. Abr-Nahrain 24 (1986): 1–26.

Artzi, Pinhas. Mourning in International Relations. Pp. 161–70 in Death in Mesopotamia, edited by Bendt Alster. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1980.

Barré, Michael L. Treaties in the ANE. ABD 6:653–56.

Barré, Michael L., and John Kselman. New Exodus, Covenant, and Restoration in Psalm 23. Pp. 97–127 in The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman, edited by Carol L. Meyers, and Michael O’Connor. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983.

Bechtel, Lyn M. Shame as a Sanction of Social Control in Biblical Israel: Judicial, Political, and Social Shaming. JSOT 49 (1991): 47–76.

Berges, Ulrich. Ich bin der Mann, der Elend sah (Klgl 3, 1); Zionstheologie als Weg aus der Krise." Biblische Zeitschrift 44, 1 (2000): 1–20.

Bergler, Siegfried. Threni v—nur ein alphabetisierendes Lied: Versuch einer Deutung. VT 27 (1977): 304–20.

Berlin, Adele. Review of Weep, O Daughter of Zion: A Study of the City-Lament Genre in the Hebrew Bible by F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp. JAOS 115 (1995): 319.

Biddle, Mark. The Figure of Lady Jerusalem: Identification, Deification, and Personification of Cities in the Ancient Near East. Pp. 173–94 in Scripture in Context, vol. 4, The Biblical Canon in Comparative Perspective, edited by K. L. Younger et al. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1991.

Brug, John F. Biblical Acrostics and Their Relationship to Other Ancient Near Eastern Acrostics. Pp. 283–304 in Scripture in Context, vol. 3, The Bible in the Light of Cuneiform Literature, edited by William W. Hallo et al. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1990.

Brunet, Gilbert. La cinquième Lamentation. VT 33 (1983): 149–70.

Budde, Carl. Das hebräische Klagelied. ZAW 2 (1882): 1–52.

Ceresko, Anthony R. The ABCs of Wisdom in Psalm XXXIV. VT 35 (1985): 99–104.

Cohen, Chayim. The ‘Widowed’ City. JANES 5 (1973): 75–81.

Cohen, Shaye. The Destruction from Scripture to Midrash. Prooftexts 2 (1982): 18–39.

Cross, Frank M. "Studies in the