Crisis Style: The Aesthetics of Repair

Crisis Style

The Aesthetics of Repair

Michael Dango

Stanford University Press

Stanford, California

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Stanford, California

©2022 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. All rights reserved.

A section of Chapter 2 was originally published as Minimalism as Detoxification, in MFS: Modern Fiction Studies 65, no. 4 (2019): 643–675 ©2019, Purdue University. Reprinted with permission.

An early version of Chapter 3 was originally published as Filtering: Theory and History of a Style, in New Literary History 51, no. 1 (2020): 177–207 ©2020, Johns Hopkins University Press. Reprinted with permission.

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Dango, Michael, author.

Title: Crisis style : the aesthetics of repair / Michael Dango.

Other titles: Post 45.

Description: Stanford, California : Stanford University Press, 2022. | Series: Post 45 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2021005330 (print) | LCCN 2021005331 (ebook) | ISBN 9781503615052 (cloth) | ISBN 9781503629554 (paperback) | ISBN 9781503629561 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Aesthetics, American—20th century. | Aesthetics, American—21st century. | Arts, American—20th century. | Arts, American—21st century. | Arts, Modern—Philosophy.

Classification: LCC BH221.U53 D36 2021 (print) | LCC BH221.U53 (ebook) | DDC 701/.170973—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021005330

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021005331

Cover design: Kevin Barrett Kane

Cover photo: Mehdi Sepehri

Typeset by Kevin Barrett Kane in 10/15 Minion Pro

Loren Glass and Kate Marshall, Editors

Post•45 Group, Editorial Committee

In memory of my mother

Contents

Acknowledgments

1. Styles of Repair

Part 1: Obsessive

2. Detox

3. Filter

Part 2: Manic

4. Binge

5. Ghost

AFTERWORD: On Ambivalence and Promiscuous Archives

Notes

Index

Acknowledgments

This is a book that theorizes style as action, and here is one conclusion I am certain of: there is no style adequate to the action of giving thanks. To the many who have influenced, supported, nourished, and sustained this writing, my appreciation will have to be expressed beyond these pages. But here let me at least name some of their names.

There are the good people at the University of Chicago, for starters. Understanding, supportive, and curious, my brilliant committee was always eager to give the best gift a scholar can hope for—being truly read; thanks to Lauren Berlant, Debbie Nelson, and Frances Ferguson for their nudges and critiques. Staff and colleagues in the English Department at Chicago and at the Center for the Study of Gender and Sexuality where I held a fellowship have shaped the revision of the book manuscript. Thanks especially to Fredrik Albritton Jonsson, Milena Ang, Tate Brazas, Angeline Dimambro, Daragh Grant, Elaine Hadley, Sarah Johnson, Heather Keenleyside, Renaissance McIntyre, Benjamin Morgan, Lex Nalley Drlica, Gina Olson, Julie Orlemanski, Emily Osborn, Tina Post, Kristen Schilt, Sarah Tuohey, Candace Vogler, Kenneth Warren, Sophie Withers, and Linda Zerilli. For workshopping earlier drafts of this project, I also thank Amanda Blair, Annie Heffernan, Katie Hendricks, Katya Motyl, Jean-Thomas Tremblay, and members of the 20th and 21st Century Workshop, especially Rowan Bayne, Patrick Jagoda, Alison James, and Françoise Meltzer.

A number of audiences were generous in their critique of chapters from this book. Thank you especially to two ACLA seminars: New Novels, New Methods at Harvard, organized by David Alworth and Andy Hoberek; and Theories and Aesthetics of Repair at UCLA. Anna Klosowska, Matt Hunter, and Lily Sheehan were smart interlocutors on an MLA panel in Chicago. Nan Da invited me to the Americanist Seminar at Notre Dame at the perfect moment in the book’s revision. Detailed commentaries of drafts by Matt Hunter and Timothy Auburn were indispensable. For encouragement at key final moments in the drafting of the manuscript, thanks to Jeff Dolven and Caroline Levine.

At a time in which our profession shrinks and our labor is increasingly casualized, perhaps my greatest debt is to the lottery of job security, without which this book could not have been written. I was privileged to complete revisions during my first year on faculty at Beloit College. Thanks to my English Department colleagues Chris Fink, Shawn Gillen, Tamara Ketabgian, and especially to Fran Abbatte and Chuck Lewis, who were department chairs the year I was hired and the year I arrived, respectively, for making it easy to get settled and for protecting research time to finish. Beyond my department, Atiera Coleman, Joseph Derosier, Natalie Gummer, Josh Moore, and Catherine Orr helped me find my institutional footing.

My writing would be far poorer without the careful eyes of editors and peer reviewers. I especially wish to thank Bruce Holsinger and Mollie Washburne at New Literary History, where an abridged version of Chapter 3 first appeared as Filtering: Theory and History of a Style in 2020; and John N. Duvall, Daniel Froid, and Alejandra Ortega at Modern Fiction Studies, where a section of Chapter 2 first appeared as Minimalism as Detoxification in 2019. Daniel’s exceptional editorial eye also improved the manuscript of the book as a whole. Kate Marshall was enthusiastic about the project right when I needed the encouragement, and she gracefully shepherded it through publication. I thank her and Post•45 series co-editor Loren Glass for their care. At Stanford, Erica Wetter and Faith Wilson Stein were delightful to work with, and they were patient with the many queries of a first-time author. Jennifer Gordon’s conscientious copyediting helped me correct not just grammatical, but also political, mistakes. The two anonymous reviewers of the book manuscript were generous, probing, and essential: truly a model of peer review at its best and why it is an institution worth holding onto in our profession. I apologize for my errors that remain.

This book is written in memory of my mother Susan. I wrote it with deep gratitude to my aunt Marilyn Cordle, who has provided essential emotional support at transitional moments in my life, and to my father Paul, whose pride has made me proud. While finishing the book, I often thought of my father, so often the only person of color in the room, not to mention the entire town, and I hope this book may draw strength from his example. It was written, from beginning to end, with Matthias Staisch by my side. His style is my favorite action of all.

1

Styles of Repair

SHALL WE BEGIN BY TOURING an art exhibit? From December 2014 to April 2015, the Museum of Modern Art ran The Forever Now, a survey of paintings from seventeen midcareer artists. Echoing MoMA’s 1958 The New American Painting, which also featured seventeen artists and was the last time the museum devoted an exhibit to new paintings, The Forever Now aimed to build a canon. But its artists responded to a different world, as the exhibit curator Laura Hoptman explained: one in which an entire catalog of paintings and styles throughout history is readily available on Wikipedia but in which painting itself has lost out in visual culture to the rise of digital screens, from Netflix to iPhones.¹ What is a contemporary painter to do in a world with both too much information about painting and too little recognition of painting?

Just past the entrance to the exhibit, we first encounter a towering wall with six imposing canvases by Joe Bradley. On each canvas, Bradley has crudely rendered abstract symbols in grease pencil, an exercise in the meanings that can be produced through an elementary language of line and curve. The middle canvas is the only one with a filled form: a scribbled circle that appears as the head of a horizontal stick figure, although the title, Man Made Dirigible, suggests the morphing of human form into schematic flying machine (Figure 1.1). The human body is the starship we’re all operating from, Bradley has said, which makes both a kind of container from the elements, sealed off from atmosphere.² There is something simultaneously modern and mythic about the painting, a return historically to primordial cave paintings and technically to the doodles of a child, both of which suggest a search for that containment, that womb before the world got complicated. It is a style of detoxing, not merely a regression to primitive forms, but a shutting out of outside noise; the gestures in pencil produce a sort of bubble in which the fantasy of being shielded from all that noise can—at least while focused on this simple pencil—be nourished. And the largeness of the works—for he is not doodling on printer paper but painting on large canvases—speaks to the desire both to simplify and to amplify, or to make the bubble bigger by focusing on its simple construction.

FIGURE 1.1 Joe Bradley, Man Made Dirigible, 2008. Grease pencil on canvas, 60 × 96 inches. © Joe Bradley. Courtesy of the artist and Canada, New York.

Further into the exhibit, Oscar Murillo’s work could not be more different. If Bradley detoxes the overabundance of noise, Murillo collects it. His wall space features stretched canvases in bright and clashing color that have collected all the stuff that a reduction to the elemental seeks to purify or expunge: dirt, detritus (Figure 1.2). He has described his studio as a cradle of dust and dirt, of pollution and invites his canvases to be contaminated. He calls his own process one of trying to get through as much material as possible: I don’t work on a painting with the goal of finishing it or having a complete and finished painting at the end of a work process.³ He seeks not to escape but to imitate how there is so much movement in the world, constantly.⁴ His style is one of bingeing, as if, in a world with too much where he cannot know what might matter, the best strategy is to collect all matter. His canvases are stitched together, sewn with needle and thread: they manifest a desire for everything to be connected, for an abandonment of hierarchy in which each thing might have a category and a place. Rather than containment, a bubble, there is the breach: a feeling out for more, an addict’s attempt to keep the trip going. And as with any addiction, there is a risk to this process of what Hal Foster might call mimetic exacerbation, the risk of an excessive identification with the corrupt conditions of a symbolic order.⁵ Fighting too-muchness with too-muchness, bingeing blurs the division between resisting and merging with the world.

On the obverse side of the wall that displays Bradley’s canvases, Josh Smith’s paintings present a gridded order as if to rebuke Murillo’s anarchism. Here are nine paintings of identical size, each five feet by four, neatly arrayed in a three-by-three matrix (Figure 1.3). Each has its own aesthetic—one a solid plane of palliated lime green, another a blue doodle, yet another a tropical postcard: a sun setting between two palm trees, thick horizontal layers of primary colors filling the sky. In the top right is one of the name paintings Smith became famous for at the turn of the millennium: his own, unremarkable name in capital letters spelled out in large green markings, with a glow of bright swatches around it. Smith has called himself an exhibitionist, but he is not a naked one: each canvas exhibits his name in a different way, a different mood, based on the color and the extent to which his gestures flail.⁶ A decade before filtering on photographic social media platforms like Snapchat allowed users to show up as a puppy one day and a zombie the next, Smith’s canvases allow his own name to show up in a specific range of affects, one at a time. Yet this search for multiplicity—trying on one filter today and another filter tomorrow—is not about integration or connection, as it was for Murillo’s bingeing into a continuous present; the three-by-three grid is about putting each scene in its proper place: a style not of the palimpsest but of the catalog. This is a style not only of iterative self-fashioning but of its standardization.

FIGURE 1.2 Detail from installation view of Oscar Murillo's works at The Forever Now exhibition at MoMA, December 2014 to April 2015. The Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

Photographer: John Wronn. Digital Image © The Museum of Modern Art / Licensed by SCALA / Art Resource, New York.

FIGURE 1.3 Installation view of Josh Smith’s paintings at The Forever Now exhibition at MoMA, December 2014 to April 2015. The Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

Photographer: John Wronn. Digital Image © The Museum of Modern Art / Licensed by SCALA / ArtResource, New York.

Were we to look for an antidote to this sequential exhibitionism, we would find it in Rashid Johnson’s singular contributions to the exhibit, drawn from a series he calls Cosmic Slop (Figure 1.4). Each begins as a large black rectangle of melted soap and wax that Johnson carves into before it resolidifies. It is a kind of negative abstract expressionism, not a flinging of paint onto a canvas—in fact there is no substance but the wax canvas itself—but still a gesturing that produces form through the elimination of canvas. Moreover, the temporal finitude of the process—the time limit imposed by the hardening of the medium—twins Johnson’s presentation and withdrawal of a self. He presents a personal gesture but is not there to see how it is taken up, how it is engaged. Johnson is ghosting the public his work addresses, in the sense that has been developed in the age of social media–facilitated intimacies: not explicitly breaking up with but suddenly and without warning withdrawing from all communication with a romantic or sexual partner, as if one has dropped dead and become a ghost. Instead of the definitiveness of a relationship ending, a relationship becomes haunted by its possibility. Johnson’s Cosmic Slops are haunting in this way, and his being present by taking away—both literally in the taking away of canvas and figuratively in the recessiveness of the self—is one way that he preempts what he calls the inevitability of some sort of cultural experience [being] projected onto the work, in particular the ways in which, as a Black artist, his work is called upon to represent some mythic Black experience.⁷ Johnson’s gestural carvings are what Phillip Brian Harper would call abstractionist, resisting the too easy tendency of making the subject of Black painting Blackness itself,⁸ at the same time that the pitch blackness of the canvas plays with what Darby English calls artifactual color: a sense of color generated in the tension between color’s racial connotations and its aesthetic meanings.⁹

FIGURE 1.4 Rashid Johnson, Cosmic Slop Black Orpheus 2011. Black soap and wax, 96-1/2 × 120-1/2 x 2 inches.

© Rashid Johnson. Courtesy of the artist and Hauser & Wirth. Photo: Martin Parsekian.

As a strategy of regaining control over the mode of their production, Joe Bradley detoxes, purifying noise and creating a bubble that, as ephemeral as bubbles themselves, protects from a world polluted by too much unregulated information; whereas Oscar Murillo binges, relishing in pollution, trying to collect all the stuff of the world and connect it when there are no heuristics that help pick out what could truly matter. As a strategy of gaining recognition in an incoherent public sphere—in which, as Néstor García Canclini puts it in his reflections on contemporary art, no one story organizes diversity in a world whose interdependence makes many people wish that a single narrative did exist—Josh Smith provides filters that multiply distinct possibilities of the self’s appearance in the world; whereas Rashid Johnson ghosts the public sphere, evading recognition at the same time that his ambiguous recession haunts it.¹⁰ These are four very different styles, and in each is a different strategy for repairing a form of crisis in the contemporary world: for detox and binge, a crisis of having personal control in a chaotic globe; for filter and ghost, a crisis of recognition in a fragmented and increasingly privatized public sphere. The crises themselves cannot be fixed—globalization and fragmentation cannot simply be undone—but style provides a fantasy of reparation: holding patterns or improvisations that allow people personally to displace the crisis for a moment.

Crisis Style: The Aesthetics of Repair is about detox, binge, filter, and ghost as the names of the four most prominent styles operating today, each repairing a sense of generalized and permanent crisis and each manifesting in a diversity of media, not just painting but literature, sculpture, music, architecture, television, fashion design, and social media. MoMA’s last painting retrospective, The New American Painting, was primarily an introduction to the abstract expressionism of the 1950s, whereas today it has become a commonplace in art history that the contemporary has no overarching style.¹¹ But it would be a mistake to conclude from the lack of a singular style the absence of style categories altogether. In this book, I develop a theory of style that, without providing some universal name for our historical period, generates stylistic categories to relate works from multiple media to one another in their shared mode of responding to the present. This is a book about how people live in a world where they seem to have lost control and lost forms of recognition in which they can see themselves as belonging to some mappable and shared order. And it is a book about why style is the right way of tracking the contingency of the present and the strategies of repair that carry people through it.

A book about crisis and repair, a book about decaying social structure and how people move around within it, could have been a work of sociology, psychology, political science, or anthropology. While in conversation with these disciplines, my focus on style nonetheless aims to advance the specific import and irreplaceable vantage points of the aesthetic: how it, to speak with Kandice Chuh, coordinates relationships between elements in the whole way of life.¹² Part of my aim is to provide a recent history of the contemporary aesthetic field—particularly over the course of the past generation and primarily, but not exclusively, in the United States—that is both more expansive than the histories we tell within hermetically sealed, medium-specific accounts (the history of painting movements, the history of literary movements) and more exacting than what we have come to class under the history of form. I advance style, rather than form, as a more robust register of affective disturbance in the historical present.

The histories of art and literature I tell in the following chapters often show little formal development over the long twentieth century, which makes form less capable of picking out the specificity of the present. Consider what has come to be called minimalism, undoubtedly one of the most important styles of the past fifty years, leaving indelible marks on music, sculpture, architecture, and literature, as well as underwriting recent lifestyle trends from clean eating to the decluttering movement advocated by such works as Marie Kondo’s The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up. And yet the simple sentences of (classically) Raymond Carver or Mary Robison and (more recently) authors like Tao Lin are, in syntactic form, not very different from those of Ernest Hemingway, who had published nearly half of his novels before any of them were born. I will argue in the next chapter that this form is nonetheless put to new uses in more contemporary hands, taking on new vocabularies and new themes, and that this putting-to-use should be understood as style. Thinking about style in terms of its use—as a kind of action—also provides a better foundation for why objects from very different media with very different aesthetic genealogies nonetheless make sense together in a category; the styles I examine in this book cut across media, producing categories of objects that illuminate one another in their shared use despite their formal diversity. Style is not form but a coordination of form and content, a particular kind of action.

I privilege the aesthetic in this book not just to give its history, however, but also because of how it helps us theorize the present. The names for the styles addressed in this book—detox, binge, filter, ghost—are most often used in the context of a hyper-contemporary digital culture, from the shows people binge on Netflix to the digital detoxes they take to reset; from the self-stylization of filters on Snapchat and Instagram to the ghosting from intimacies set up on Tinder and Grindr. Part of my argument (to which I return in the coda to Chapter 3) is that aesthetic style figures out these tactics before people become conscious of their reparative function—thus Josh Smith filters and Rashid Johnson ghosts a decade before they would have been able to use these terms themselves.

In The Work of Art in the Age of Deindustrialization, Jasper Bernes has called attention to how artists and writers of the 1960s and 1970s develop a conceptual grammar that is important for the restructuring of work that follows, which makes their artistic work not so much symptomatic of changes in the economic structure of work but even prophetic.¹³ I argue for a similar temporality of artistic style in relation to structure here. In a world that moves too quickly to be captured, style performs actions before they become articulable as content. Indeed, style becomes available in this book for a cultural criticism without content, because it shows what people are doing regardless of what they may say they are feeling or thinking. To read style is to read how people adapt to their changing worlds, even when they may not be able to slow down the world long enough to represent it. Whereas narrative representations of what life is like in transitional periods often lag behind the transitions themselves (someone cannot write a novel about the Great Recession until the Great Recession has happened), style is synchronous with the present it acts within. But it is not just that style is literally avant-garde, ahead of its time even if by only a few years. It is also that aesthetic styles provide critics perfect objects to better understand the reparative strategies they incarnate: perfect in, again, the literal sense of having all the pieces, of being complete, and of providing a whole whose parts can be dissected, examined, better understood.

Jeff Dolven is onto something similar in his recent book on Senses of Style. For Dolven, as for me, style does not produce meanings that can be declared in sentences, as interpretation does, but practical knowledge manifested in imitation: "To respond to something in terms of style is to ask, always if not explicitly, would I want to do something like that, make something like that, live that way?"¹⁴ Style is a way of living—art style always implies, or already embodies, lifestyle—and its study explores how people are living, their practices of living. Because of the practical knowledge yielded by style, I argue in the following section we should theorize style as action. Dolven, in contrast, thinks that action is a limit of style, as action itself cannot have a style: Style-words are modifiers, adjectives and adverbs, predications. The verb is the grammar of action. While an action may be performed in one style or another, the action qua action is not altered.¹⁵ In this book, I approach the relation between style and action from a different angle to see not the possibility of styles of action but, rather, action within style itself. In what follows, I elaborate, particularly through the philosopher of action G. E. M. Anscombe, that there is practical knowledge not just in observing and imitating a style but in forming a style with or without knowing it, for a style, as a coordination of form and content, is itself an action, a practice of coordination.

In the following sections of this chapter, I lay out more methodically what it means to theorize style as action and why it makes sense to do so. Along the way, I build on the pathbreaking work of affect theorists and formalists from the past decade; these are the two fields that have given us the best tools for theorizing the present and for theorizing the aesthetic. But by centrally positioning Anscombe and, by extension, an analytic tradition of philosophy that has often been seen as anathema to the continental foundations of these fields, especially in their more recent Marxist and Foucauldian varieties, I hope not only to build some bridges but also to recommend three shifts of emphasis in the work we do in these fields:

1. We should spend more time thinking about action than fantasy. Approaching reparativity as an action rather than a disposition, I hope to reorient both the ground on which we do affect studies and the meaning of what we have called the reparative turn. Action is a better way of approaching the contingency of the present, because people often act without a plan and do not have stable fantasies that underwrite their actions; and it is also a queerer approach, cruising the surfaces of bodies rather than compelling confessions from the interiors of souls.

2. We should spend more time thinking about style than form. I argue we should think of form as logically subordinate to style (form is part of style), and this focus not only helps solve a crisis of scale in formalism—e.g., why we should think the organizations of a novel and of a nation are relatable—but also points toward a cultural archive that cannot be captured by computational approaches (which can single out form one day and semantics the next, but not their dynamic coordination). Style enables robust comparative media analysis in what I call promiscuous archives.

3. We should spend more time taxonomizing a cultural field than hypothesizing its bases. In this book I am less interested in theorizing the metaphysics of crisis or resolving debates between, for instance, Marxists and Foucauldians on how best to conceptualize the current neoliberal order. I follow the lead of scholars from Eric Cazdyn to Lauren Berlant of taking as one background condition of the contemporary a sense of crisis so pervasive it has come to feel chronic (Cazdyn) or ordinary (Berlant); but the point is we do not have to agree on a single, total theory of what the source of this crisis is.¹⁶ I suggest instead an approach that is about mapping out the world and its diversity—describing all the different ways people conceptualize crisis and respond to it, without necessarily supplying some underlying single cause—about forming catalogs more than syllogisms.

Style as Action

Detox, filter, binge, and ghost: this book argues these are the names for four of the most prominent styles trending in U.S. culture during the past generation. Each manifests across media—from literature to film to music to architecture—and each provides a strategy of repairing crisis. And each is also the name of an action: a central argument of this book is that we should interpret and identify styles as actions—coordinating what a work of art says in its content and figures in its form. At least since Nelson Goodman’s The Status of Style, first presented as a lecture in 1974, stylistic analysis has had to give up the easy distinction between what and how it had formerly relied upon to pick out its object of study: What is said, how it is said, wrote Goodman, what is expressed, and how it is expressed are all intimately interrelated and involved in style.¹⁷ In thus cutting across form and content, Goodman suggested style was not to be identified with one pole of any dichotomy but, rather, to be understood as mediating between them: coordinating content and form by picking out and matching elements in each. In prose fiction, for instance, style coordinates different forms of words, sentences, and chapters with different themes and subjects. But if style always coordinates, I claim we should identify styles according to the action of coordination itself. I thus shift the terrain: content is what is said and style is what is done.

A number of artists and art critics in the twentieth century theorized connections between works and actions. Action painting was Harold Rosenberg’s term in the 1950s to name a number of works, paradigmatically Jackson Pollock’s drip paintings on canvas, that were a gesturing with materials: for these painters, to pretend painting was anything other than painting—to say it was, for instance, representing or depicting something else in the world—was a farce, and it was important to frame painting as the action of painting.¹⁸ With more nuance, Richard Serra’s celebrated 1967–68 Verblist laid out an itinerary for sculptural production by collecting transitives—beginning with to roll, to crease, to fold, to store—that could be applied to various media; for instance, one of Serra’s famous early works, One Ton Prop (House of Cards), took one of these verbs, to prop, and applied it to four plates of iron by positioning them contingently, leaning upon each other for support. In this translation of a verb into a noun, from propping iron to the iron as prop, Serra presented sculptures that are not simply results of actions but actions themselves: the house of cards is the continued performance of the action of propping. In architecture, Anthony Di Mari and Nora Yoo have developed an operative design that classifies the volumetric building blocks of architecture with their own verb list of actions, including extrude, nest, twist, fracture, and shear.¹⁹ Similarly, Keller Easterling has looked at the active forms of infrastructures, labeling them with names such as the multiplier and the switch.²⁰

These literal discussions of action in art and design consider works that convert action into content, so that a particular action is what an object is, or is at least about. In contrast, viewing style as an action invites thinking of form and content together: how a work of art does not represent an action but coordinates its parts in an action itself.

Others before me have pointed to a relation between style and action—whether in Berel Lang’s suggestion that we think of style less through an "adverbial model" (how a work of art is presented) and more through a "verbial model" in the active relation between form and content; in Jenefer Robinson’s argument that style is "a way of doing certain things; or in Stephanie Ross’s claim that style inheres not in the finished object . . . , but in the artistic acts that created [it]." ²¹ What I mean by action is both more abstract and more specific than these accounts: like Ross, I refer style to the production of a work, but I am interested in what a work of art shows us about the reflexes operating in an artist at the scene of production—how form and content were brought together in a certain way. Thus, the action of style is not just the action of production itself but socially circulated strategies within the production process.

My account is therefore closer to, but still departs significantly from, Arthur Danto’s influential definition, in The Transfiguration of the Commonplace (1981), of style as a basic action: the spontaneous, immediate expression of an artist’s particular way of seeing the world.²² Because it is what is done without the mediation of art or knowledge, style, which is so intimately the expression of an artist, cannot itself be known by its artist.²³ Even though the structure of a style is like the structure of a personality, this style is only for others to see, because the presence of knowledge or art presupposes that externalization which is inconsistent with them being [the artist’s] style.²⁴ Elsewhere, Danto elaborates that style cannot be known by the artist in part because style develops over the course of a career that exceeds any given artwork: those features that, in retrospect, appear as stylistic must first have been spontaneous.²⁵ This provides another reason why, in Danto’s understanding, style is to be understood as a basic action: if style cannot be known, it cannot be intended, and therefore it cannot be a non-basic action.

Danto was a philosopher of both action and art. In the opening pages of Transfiguration of the Commonplace, he presents the problems of defining art and of defining action as formally identical: what separates a mere object from an art object is the same as what separates a mere bodily movement (my hand was raised) from an action (I raised my hand). But a genealogy of action philosophy that he had not fully integrated into his account modifies his definition in important ways. In particular, for those in the tradition of G. E. M. Anscombe, whose 1957 Intention radically reconfigured analytic action philosophy, there is no such thing as an unintended action.²⁶

Anscombe wrote to dispute a picture of action eventually formulated most influentially by Donald Davidson, who thought an action could be distinguished from other events a body undergoes according to its causal history.²⁷ For Davidson, an action is so because it is anteceded by mental states that bring it about: if I am doing something (e.g., raising my hand) instead of merely undergoing it (letting my hand be raised by a pulley or someone else), then I have had psychological conditions—beliefs, desires, and intentions—that have caused it. But this pacing out of cause and effect has the weird result of removing actors from the event of action itself, relegating them to the supervision of a mental process that precedes it and detaching them from the body during the activity itself, which is spontaneously produced literally as an afterthought. Looking at the causal history of action ignores the more important and intimate relation actors have with their bodies while they are acting, and actions cannot be decomposed to produce causes estranged from them. Instead of breaking an action into parts, Anscombe suggested we should instead see actions as parts of a larger process. If we ask an actor why they are doing something, the reason they provide will take the form of a part–whole or means–end relationship that, rather than reducing an action to an effect of psychological components, explains an action by considering larger patterns in which it takes part.

Anscombe’s radical intervention here is not just to displace a cause-and-effect theory of psychology and action but to move action theory from the metaphysical terrain in which causal questions arise in the first place to an interpretive terrain in which what matters is how we explain an action. Rather than ask what comes before an action, we look at an action and interpret it: what physically takes place, i.e. what a man actually does, is the very last thing traditional accounts of action consider, complained Anscombe. Whereas I wish to say it is the first.²⁸ In particular, to begin with what a man actually does and then ask why turns action into a scene in which people come to terms with their beliefs and desires, instead of having to know these beforehand. Sometimes people act without forming a conscious plan beforehand. Sometimes people surprise themselves with their actions and only after they have done something ask: why did I do that? What was I trying to accomplish just then without even knowing? And if I was trying to accomplish something, what fantasies or desires were constellated in that something? What do my actions know about me and about my world that I must now find the words to explain? Style, as an action, poses questions such as these. To read style is to read how people act in a changing world even when they may not be able to slow down the world long enough to represent it.

The temporality of style is then more forward-leaning than backward-gazing; it keeps things going, as Jeff Dolven puts it, carrying people onward in a world whose substance has not yet been filled in or mapped out: a holding pattern in which the future is glimpsed without being scripted.²⁹ For Anscombe, an action could not be understood without a future space in which it proposes to unfold: In order to make sense of ‘I do P with a view to Q,’ we must see how the future state of affairs is supposed to be a possible later stage in the proceedings of which the action P is an earlier stage.³⁰ This is why Michael Thompson argues that, when we answer the question why about our actions, we are likely to wrap up an action in a larger action (Q: why are you opening your laptop? A: I am writing a book), which he calls explanation by the imperfective (I am writing).³¹ The point of the imperfective is an asymmetry of information in relation to the action explained perfectly: it opens up the manifest event of action to the space of a larger process, whose success is in no way guaranteed and whose contingency is precisely the ground of an action having a place and role (alas, there is no guarantee the book will be completed). Style, too, calls out for explanation by the imperfective: i.e., an attention not to what is accomplished but what is unfolding. Style asks us to consider and explain how the forms and contents of a work are brought together with an aim toward something else—feeling out and forward for some plan or future.

When it comes to basic actions—those actions people seem to just do and which Danto used to define what style is because of their seeming lack of intention—what this means is that we are mistaken in trying to decompose an