Authoritative Guide to the Katalopsi Constructed Language

Copyright © 2019 J. S. Ling.

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CONTENTS

PREFACE

CHAPTER 1 PHONOLOGY

1.1: The Sounds

1.1.1: Tones

1.1.1.1: Basic Tones

1.1.1.2: Complex Tones

1.1.2: Consonants

1.1.2.1: Familiar Consonants

1.1.2.2: Unfamiliar Consonants

1.1.3: Vowels

1.1.3.1: Monophthongs

1.1.3.2: Diphthongs

1.2: Syllables

1.2.1: Syllable Types

1.2.1.1: Type I Syllables

1.2.1.2: Type II Syllables

1.2.1.3: Type III Syllables

1.2.2: Consonant Clusters

1.3: Interactions

1.3.1: Vowel Rounding

1.3.2: Vowel Reduction

1.3.3: Tone Sandhi

1.3.3.1: Intralexical Sandhi

1.3.3.2: Interlexical Sandhi

1.3.3.2.1: Persistent Rising

1.3.3.2.2: Persistent Falling

1.3.3.2.3: Consecutive Mordents

1.3.3.2.4: Mordent Allotony

1.3.3.2.5: Neutral Lexeme Allotony

1.3.3.2.6: Flat Tone Transformations

1.3.3.2.7: Tone Conflict Epenthesis

1.3.4: Tap Articulation

1.3.4.1: Homologue Approximation

1.3.4.2: Syllabic Trilling

1.3.5: Syllabic Reduction

1.3.6: Vowel Lengthening

CHAPTER 2 LEXICOLOGY & MORPHOLOGY

2.1: Categories of Type I Syllables

2.1.1: Auxiliaries

2.1.1.1: Tense

2.1.1.1.1: Past Tense

2.1.1.1.2: Present Tense

2.1.1.1.3: Future Tense

2.1.1.2: Aspect

2.1.1.3: Modality

2.1.1.3.1: Emotive

2.1.1.3.2: Evidential

2.1.1.3.3: Obligative

2.1.1.3.4: Functional

2.1.1.3.5: Miscellaneous

2.1.2: Disambiguators

2.1.2.1: Valency Patterns

2.1.2.2: Role Assignment Patterns

2.2: Categories of Type Ii Syllables

2.2.1: Determiners

2.2.1.1: Demonstratives

2.2.1.2: Quantifiers

2.2.2: Pronouns

2.2.2.1: Personal Pronouns

2.2.2.2: Possessive Pronouns

2.2.2.3: Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

2.2.2.4: Relative and Interrogative Pronouns

2.2.2.5: Impersonal Pronouns

2.2.2.6: Demonstrative Pronouns

2.2.2.7: Trace Pronoun

2.2.3: Logical Connectives

2.2.3.1: Conjunction

2.2.3.2: Disjunction

2.2.3.3: Negation

2.2.3.4: Implication

2.2.4: Prepositions and Complementizers

2.2.5: Numerals

2.2.5.1: Zero to Ten

2.2.5.2: Eleven to Ninety-Nine

2.2.5.3: One Hundred to One Million

2.2.6: Nouns

2.2.6.1: Monomorphemic Nouns

2.2.6.2: Deverbal Nouns

2.2.6.3: Deadjectival Nouns

2.2.6.4: Denominal Nouns

2.2.6.5: Compound Nouns

2.2.7: Adjectives

2.2.7.1: Monomorphemic Adjectives

2.2.7.2: Denumeral Adjectives

2.2.7.3: Deverbal Adjectives

2.2.7.4: Denominal Adjectives

2.2.7.5: Deadjectival Adjectives

2.2.7.6: Compound Adjectives

2.2.8: Adverbs

2.2.8.1: Monomorphemic Adverbs

2.2.8.2: Deadjectival Adverbs

2.2.8.3: Compound Adverbs

2.2.8.4: Prepositions Revisited

2.2.9: Predicatives

2.3: Categories of Type III Syllables

2.3.1: Verbs

2.3.1.1: Monomorphemic Verbs

2.3.1.2: Deadjectival Verbs

2.3.1.3: Compound Verbs

2.3.2: Compounds

2.4: Gap Distribution and Future Expansion

CHAPTER 3 SYNTAX

3.1: Phrases

3.1.1: Modification

3.1.1.1: Modification of Nouns

3.1.1.2: Modification of Adjectives

3.1.1.3: Modification of Adverbs

3.1.1.4: Modification of Verbs

3.1.2: Grammatical Phrases

3.1.3: Pronominalization

3.1.3.1: Noun Phrase Pronominalization

3.1.3.2: Determiner Pronominalization

3.1.3.3: Adjunct Pronominalization

3.1.4: Logical Connection of Phrases

3.2: Sentences

3.2.1: General Structure

3.2.2: More on Predicates

3.2.3: More on Disambiguators and Arguments

3.2.3.1: Valency and Number of Arguments

3.2.3.2: Interpretation of Arguments

3.2.4: Sentential Vs. Phrasal Negation

3.2.5: Sentential Adjunction

3.2.6: Variation On The General Structure

3.2.6.1: Questioning

3.2.6.2: Focusing

3.2.6.3: Commanding

3.2.6.4: Topicalization

3.2.6.5: Exclamation

3.3: Other Utterances

3.3.1: Simple Utterances

3.3.1.1: Interjections

3.3.1.2: Elided Sentences

3.3.2: More Complex Utterances

3.3.2.1: Coordinated Clauses

3.3.2.2: Embedded Clauses

3.3.2.2.1: Embedded Subject Clauses

3.3.2.2.2: Subordinated Object Clauses

3.3.2.2.3: Relative Clauses

3.3.2.3: Elision in Complex Utterances

3.4: Common Constructions

3.4.1: Comparison

3.4.1.1: Equivalence

3.4.1.2: Comparative

3.4.1.3: Superlative

3.4.2: Small Clauses and Linking Verbs

3.4.3: Anaphora

3.4.4: Conditionals

CHAPTER 4 SEMANTICS & PRAGMATICS

4.1: Semantic Roles

4.1.1: Agency—CA vs. AG

4.1.2: Intentionality—EXP vs. AG

4.1.3: Alteration—PA vs. TH

4.1.4: Proposition—STIM vs. TH

4.1.5: Benefit—REC vs. BEN

4.1.6: Transience—EXP vs. TH

4.2: Number

4.3: Countability

4.4: Definiteness

4.5: Temporal Distance

4.6: Evidentiality

4.6.1: Reportativity

4.6.2: Degree of Confidence

4.6.3: Hypotheticals

4.7: Gender

4.8: Mathematics

4.8.1: Addition and Subtraction

4.8.2: Multiplication and Division

4.8.3: Equality and Inequality

CHAPTER 5 ORTHOGRAPHY

5.1: The Basics

5.2: Compositionality

5.2.1: Consonants

5.2.2: Vowels

5.2.3: Tones

5.2.4: Syllables

5.2.5: Words

5.3: Graphical Disambiguation

5.3.1: Multisyllabic Words Vs. Diphthongic Syllables

5.3.1.1: Consonant Placement

5.3.1.2: Tone Diacritics

5.3.2: Separation of Words

5.3.3: Sentential Punctuation

CHAPTER 6 PRODUCTION

6.1: Vocabulary Groups

6.1.1: Everyday Expressions—Kèsó Py̱jó

6.1.2: Human Biology—Clexõ U Kínì

6.1.3: Animals—Fóxỳ

6.1.4: Plants—Clexõ U Mà

6.1.5: Careers—Ké

6.1.6: Geoscience—Ka Xó

6.1.7: Clothing—Méclō

6.1.8: Food—Psá

6.1.9: Instruments—Kĩ

6.1.10: Civilization—Rūnà

6.1.11: Family—Srý

6.1.12: Colors—Kō

6.1.13: Home—Srō

6.2: Tips For Creation

6.2.1: Neologism

6.2.2: Onomastics

6.2.3: Rhetoric

6.3: Writing Samples

6.3.1: Short Story

6.3.1.1: Latin

6.3.1.2: KWS

6.3.2: Poetry

6.3.2.1: Latin

6.3.2.2: KWS

6.3.2.3: English

6.3.3: Novel

6.3.3.1: Latin

6.3.3.2: KWS

6.3.3.3: English

CHAPTER 7 DICTIONARY

7.1: Guide To Entries

7.1.1: Obligatory Entry Features

7.1.1.1: Heading

7.1.1.2: Translation Number

7.1.1.3: Part of Speech

7.1.1.4: Translation

7.1.2: Optional Entry Features

7.1.2.1: Disambiguator Set for Verbs

7.1.2.2: Meaningful Elaboration of Translations

7.1.2.3: Subheading

7.1.2.4: Semantic Roles for Disambiguators

7.1.3: Organization of Entries

7.1.3.1: Internal Order of Translations

7.1.3.2: External Order of Entries

7.2: English to Katalopsi

7.3: Katalopsi to English

Works Cited

PREFACE

To create a language feels, to me, distinctly human—even instinctual. Noam Chomsky insists that what we humans do when we speak or sign is so closely linked to our humanness that to ask whether other animals have language is nonsensical.

Our creativity, though, also seems rather unique, and so why not engage both of these faculties at the same time? To say I thought that when I started this project would be misleading, but these thoughts were in the back of my mind when I created the language that is the subject of this book.

An interesting thing happens when you imagine the sounds of a language, the ordering of the words, and most importantly the words themselves. You cannot help but picture the people who speak the language, with all their culture, their interests, and the broad memetic environment they find themselves in. These flashes of a fictional ethnicity guided the process of building the lexicon. You think, What do these people care about? What do they talk about?

Of course I wanted to create a language that is functional, with a potential for use as a communicative medium at least as good as any natural language, but a good chunk of the vocabulary ended up being about that elusive, imaginary people.

The strangeness of language construction doesn’t stop with the dictionary, however, because as I decided on the sounds the language will use and wrote out arbitrary rules for how the sounds should combine and mutually influence the realization of one another, a character began to emerge from that system, an unnamed quality. When I begin construction of a language, I feel myself psychologically perched on the edge of my seat, waiting to perceive the emergence of that elusive quality. There’s really nothing to compare to that feeling.

I’m happy for anyone who wants to read this book for a love of studying constructed languages, but I’d especially like to encourage gamers and game developers to use this language as they see fit, provided that you credit me for its creation. I don’t want the lack of access to an exolanguage be the reason your tabletop sci-fi game doesn’t feel authentic. I don’t want game developers to be discouraged by an inability to construct these languages themselves.

As a final note, to better facilitate the comprehension of this text, let me say outright that I will attempt to present every linguistic concept mentioned in this book in two ways: (1) in terms of the linguistic, scientific understanding of the phenomena and (2) in lay terms, free of jargon, to better speak to learners of the language without a linguistics background.

I hope you enjoy learning this language as much as I enjoyed creating it.

CHAPTER 1

Phonology

In spoken language, sounds are fundamental. It is important to know how sounds are pronounced both in isolation and in interaction with one another. For your speech to be considered fluent, you need to be aware of how the sounds change depending on their environment. In this chapter, we will look at the fundamental sounds of the Katalopsi constructed language, ways of combining those sounds into syllables, and the different forms sounds take while interacting in natural speech.

1.1: THE SOUNDS

1.1.1: TONES

The most striking characteristic of the phonological system of Katalopsi, especially to speakers of English, is its use of tone. You may be familiar with intonation, the variation of pitch throughout a sentence to get across differences in meaning. For example, speakers of English often raise the pitch of their voice at the end of a sentence to indicate a question. Tone is similar, except that it involves varying the pitch of your voice over single words to yield distinct meanings. You might have encountered this phenomenon in languages like Mandarin Chinese.

Consider the following pairs of Katalopsi words that differ only in tone, noting their English translations. For now, we will use characters from the Latin alphabet to represent these words, but in Chapter 5 you will learn the language’s unique orthographical system.

These are called minimal pairs, meaning the members of the pairs differ from one another by a single feature, which in this case is tone. What these examples show is that in Katalopsi, tone is distinctive. That is, it results in different meanings.

In the above examples, we can discern five different tones, represented by diacritics on the vowels: the rising tone (ú), the falling tone (ù), the high tone (ū), the low tone (u̱), and the mordent tone (ũ). There are three additional tones we will shortly identify, but their distribution is much narrower, while the abovementioned tones are essentially ubiquitous.

It will be helpful for some to note that from this point on, we will be using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a set of characters used to exactly describe how something is pronounced. For many readers, this will probably not be useful, but if ever there is any doubt how to truly pronounce something, a study of the IPA will benefit you.

In Table 1, you will see every tone that occurs in Katalopsi, complete with examples. You will see that the tones have been divided into basic and complex tones, a distinction that will prove useful in our discussion of vowels in §1.1.3.

Table 1. Tones of Katalopsi

1.1.1.1: Basic Tones

The basic tones of Katalopsi are five-fold. The rising tone, the falling tone, the high tone, and the low tone occur in every type of syllable more or less without restriction. The neutral tone can only occur in conjunction with the complex mordent tone, which we will describe more fully in the next section.

The rising tone starts at a relatively low pitch and raises to a relatively high pitch by the end of the syllable. In our Latin orthographical representations of Katalopsi, we will be using the acute accent to represent the rising tone. Where exactly the accent is placed will be discussed in embryo in our discussion of syllable types in §1.2 and more fully in the chapter 5 discussion of orthography.

The falling tone is the reverse of the rising tone. To perform this tone, you start the syllable with a relatively high pitch and fall to a relatively low pitch by the end of the syllable. The grave accent is used to represent this tone:

The high tone does not involve a change in pitch but rather involves flatly holding a relatively high pitch throughout the syllable. This is represented by a macron above the vowel:

The low tone is analogous to the high tone in that you realize it by maintaining a relatively low pitch throughout the syllable. This is represented by a macron below the vowel.

Finally, the neutral tone, which only occurs in conjunction with the mordent tone—one of the complex tones described further in the next section—is also a stable pitch tone. Like the high and low tones, you do not vary the pitch of your voice throughout the syllable, but the pitch you aim for is relatively in the middle of the pitches of adjacent high and low tones. The neutral tone is represented by the absence of a diacritic on the vowel. Note that this is distinct from some unmarked vowels, like in the words just mentioned, e.g. pió, muà, etc. The exact distinction will be elucidated later in this chapter. The following words have examples of both the neutral tone and the mordent tone:

1.1.1.2: Complex Tones

The complex tones come in three varieties, the first of which is the previously mentioned mordent tone. The principle of the mordent tone is that every syllable occurring in the same word, before the syllable with the mordent tone, is realized with a neutral tone. If the word is monosyllabic, having a single syllable, this effect is not observed, but di- and trisyllabic words as well as still more lengthy words will have co-occurring neutral tones. Note how the mordent tone is marked with a perispomene, also known as a tilde:

The mordent tone is realized much like the musical ornament from which it gets its name. Starting the syllable at a neutral level, or guiding, pitch, you quickly dip the pitch of your voice downward and then quickly come back up to the same level at which you started. When dipping downward, you do not necessarily go as low as the pitch of a low tone, but just enough so that the dip is discernible to a listener.

The second of the three complex tones is known as the rising-falling tone, as it involves realizing both a rising and then a falling tone in the same syllable. That is, you begin at a relatively low pitch, rise to a high pitch, and then fall back to the low pitch at which you started. This tone as well as the next and last complex tone to be discussed occur only on diphthongs, where one vowel glides into another. We will discuss this further in the section on vowels and in the section on syllables. Consider the following examples of words with the rising-falling tone, which is represented with a circumflex above the last vowel of the diphthong:

The third complex tone is known as the falling-rising tone and is the reverse of the tone just discussed. This involves starting the syllable with a relatively high pitch, falling down to a low pitch, and then rising back to the high pitch at which you started. This tone is represented with a háček, also known as a caron, above the vowel:

1.1.2: CONSONANTS

In this section, we will discuss the fourteen consonants that occur in Katalopsi. Similar to tone, the complete set of consonants, shown in Table 2, do not necessarily occur in every environment. However, it is important that we look at the consonants in isolation before we start trying to construct syllables with them, complete with an exposition on the asymmetries of their phonological environments.

Table 2 is a simplified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet chart, containing only the consonants of Katalopsi. The letters of our shorthand Latin alphabet will appear to the left in chevrons (e.g. 〈m〉). The IPA symbol will appear to the right of the Latin grapheme in square brackets (e.g. [m]). Where two pairs of symbols occur, the upper pair is the voiceless variant, while the lower pair is the voiced variant.

Table 2. Consonants of Katalopsi

Some of these consonants will be unfamiliar to many speakers of English, so they bear greater attention and explanation. We will first review those sounds that will be familiar to native English speakers and then consider those sounds that will be problematic.

1.1.2.1: Familiar Consonants

Each of the so-called plosive consonants occur in English in some form: 〈p〉, 〈c〉, and 〈k〉. The 〈p〉 is performed with a puff of air blown between closed lips and occurs in English words such as part, happen, and sap. The 〈c〉 sound is like the 〈t〉 occurring in words tarnish, hurt, and treat, except that the puff of air is pushed through the closure created by the tip of your tongue and the back of your teeth. The 〈k〉 sound is identical to that occurring in words like keep, seek, and skip.

Nasal consonants are extremely common across the natural languages of the world due to that distinctive titular quality. Katalopsi has just two nasals, 〈m〉 and 〈n〉, which in their graphic representations do not mislead. The 〈m〉 sound is realized just as in the English words mother, ham, and ammo, while the 〈n〉 sound is just as in words noun, hand, and mantis.

Two of the six fricatives of Katalopsi also occur in English, 〈s〉 and 〈z〉. The 〈s〉 sound is often spelled 〈sh〉, as in shock and marsh, but also occurs as 〈ch〉, as in chic and cache. The 〈z〉 sound has a more constrained distribution in English but is the voiced variant of 〈s〉, meaning you vibrate your vocal cords while performing it. It occurs as 〈s〉 in words like pleasure and lesion, as 〈g〉 in a word like genre, and so on.

The two abovementioned approximants will also be familiar to speakers of English, 〈l〉 and 〈j〉. The sound 〈l〉 refers to is as the grapheme suggests, that sound in the words late, pal, and illusion. Finally, the 〈j〉 sound is equivalent to the sound represented as 〈y〉 in yes, yawn, and yard.

The final consonant that will be familiar to speakers of English is 〈r〉, or the tap consonant [ɾ]. Although it does occur in English, it is not distinctive, so it does not result in different meanings. In Katalopsi, it is distinctive and is produced like the American English pronunciation of 〈t〉 in litter or 〈d〉 in ladder. It is a flick of the tongue, a tap or flap of the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. In English, this sound only occurs in the middle of words, between vowels or between sonorants; to pronounce it in Katalopsi, you should become used to pronouncing it at the beginning of words as well.

1.1.2.2: Unfamiliar Consonants

There are consonants in Table 2 which do not occur in English, represented in the Latin orthography as 〈f〉, 〈v〉, 〈x〉, and 〈g〉 and in IPA as [ɸ], [β], [x], and [ɣ], respectively.

The voiceless bilabial fricative, 〈f〉 or [ɸ], will sound a lot like an English 〈f〉, as in fog, gaffe, and sift. However, the English 〈f〉 sound is made by pressing your lower lip against your upper teeth, whereas the Katalopsi 〈f〉 is realized by putting your upper and lower lips together. Think of it as blowing friction through your lips. You may be familiar with the sound in languages like Japanese or some dialects of Spanish¹. If you try to make an 〈f〉 sound using just your lips, you will be able to produce the Katalopsi 〈f〉 with ease.

A very similar sound is the voiced bilabial fricative, 〈v〉 or [β], the voiced variant of the fricative we just discussed. It is therefore like producing an English 〈v〉 sound, as in vest, tavern, and have, but with your upper and lower lips together. It is important not to let your lips be too lax when producing this sound because you may accidentally produce a bilabial trill, a sort of raspberry sound often made by infants.

Another fricative which may be an issue is the voiceless velar fricative, 〈x〉 or [x]. You have probably heard it before without realizing it. Occurring in languages like German and Russian, this fricative can be realized by articulating a 〈k〉 as previously described, but instead of creating a complete closure between your tongue and your velum, you make a slightly lax closure that allows air to pass through, making a friction sound. It will probably sound quite harsh at first, but with practice, you will find that you can give it more or less energy and soon you will be producing it as confidently as any other sound.

The final challenging sound to be discussed is the voiced velar fricative, 〈g〉 or [ɣ], the voiced variant of the fricative just described. Once you are able to produce the 〈x〉 sound, simply add the vibration of your vocal cords to the production of the sound, and you will be producing 〈g〉. In other words, if you articulate a 〈g〉 as in the words gourd, stag, and haggard, but create a slightly lax closure—as for 〈x〉—the voiced velar fricative will be the result.

1.1.3: VOWELS

There are six vowels in Katalopsi, and they can combine in specific ways to form eighteen diphthongs. They can also be influenced by surrounding sounds, resulting in different pronunciations. We will explore this subject of phonological interaction in §1.3. Table 3 shows the six vowels in their basic monophthong forms:

Table 3. Vowels of Katalopsi (Monophthongs)

These sounds combine to create diphthongs, or sounds where one vowel glides into another. As we will see later, this distinction between monophthong and diphthong vowels is significant for the lexicology of the language.

1.1.3.1: Monophthongs

The six vowels mentioned above are all vowels that occur in English; learning their orthographical representations will likely be more difficult than learning to pronounce them for the majority of readers.

The sound we represent as 〈i〉, a close front unrounded vowel, occurs in English in a variety of spellings, such as 〈ea〉 in read, 〈ee〉 in peek, and 〈i〉 in magazine, among others.

The sound 〈e〉, a near-mid front unrounded vowel, occurs in English but only in the form of a diphthong. If you listen carefully to the sound of 〈ay〉 in bay, 〈ai〉 in raid, and 〈a〉 in made, you will hear two vowel qualities, the first gliding into the second. The sound we are representing as 〈e〉 is the first of these two vowel qualities. To successfully pronounce this vowel, try pronouncing the diphthongs in the words bay, raid, and made, but cut off the second half.

The vowel 〈a〉, a near-open front unrounded vowel, is identical to that in English, most often spelled as 〈a〉, as in gnash, tack, and past.

The sound 〈y〉, a mid central unrounded vowel, is also found in its exact form in English, but with a variety of spellings. The 〈a〉 in attend, the 〈e〉 in return, and the 〈o〉 in welcome are all good examples of this vowel in use.

The close back rounded vowel, 〈u〉, is similar to 〈e〉 mentioned above, in that it only occurs in English as part of a diphthong. This is the sound occurring as 〈oo〉 in boot, as 〈u〉 in absolute, and as 〈eu〉 in neutral. If you pronounce these words slowly, you will notice that you narrow your lips as you pronounce the diphthong. In order to pronounce this vowel in Katalopsi, you need to avoid narrowing your lips and only pronounce the first half of the diphthong.

The sound we represent as 〈o〉, the open back unrounded vowel, is pronounced as 〈a〉 in father, as 〈o〉 in bother, and as 〈oa〉 in broad, among other spellings. In this form, this vowel should be very familiar to speakers of English and does not bear close consideration.

Once you have a firm grasp of the pronunciation of these six vowels, you can safely move on to the next section on the combination of monophthongic vowels into diphthongs.

1.1.3.2: Diphthongs

The six vowels described in the previous section can combine into diphthongs, vowels in which one vowel quality glides into another. These are very common in English, but those of Katalopsi will probably seem across the board a little peculiar. The diphthongs of English are pairings of vowels with semivowels, a linguistic term referring to sounds like the 〈y〉 in yes or the 〈w〉 in wave. While their exact realization may vary due to factors we will shortly discuss, the diphthongs of Katalopsi are composed of a vowel with a vowel, a phenomenon you may recognize from languages like Lithuanian².

Eighteen diphthongs can be formed from the combination of the six monophthongs. This might come as a surprise to any of you keen on analyzing the combinatorics of the situation. That is, if the first vowel of the diphthong is one of six, and the second is one of the remaining five, would we not expect a product of thirty possible diphthongs? While this is mathematically accurate, additional constraints on the vowels that can combine limit this to only eighteen. Katalopsi diphthongs are subject to a constraint which we may call anti-harmony.

This term is derived from a known concept in linguistics called vowel harmony, a phenomenon occurring in languages like Turkish and Hungarian³, in which words are required to contain only vowels from the same category. For example, Turkish words for the most part have vowels that are either only front or only back, either only rounded or only unrounded. That is, the vowels are harmonious with one another.

In Katalopsi, the phenomenal domain is the diphthong, and the vowels must not be in the same category. They must be anti-harmonious. There are three categories of relevance: category A (high vowels), containing 〈i〉 and 〈u〉; category B (neutral vowels), containing just 〈e〉; and category C (low vowels), containing 〈a〉, 〈y〉, and 〈o〉. This anti-harmony is applied anticipatorily, meaning that once the first vowel is chosen, the second vowel is compared categorically to the first to confirm the anti-harmony. E.g. if the first vowel is 〈i〉, then the second vowel can be any vowel other than 〈i〉 and 〈u〉. Table 4 shows all possible diphthongs and marks the impossible diphthongs for the reason they do not occur:

Table 4. Vowels of Katalopsi (Diphthongs)

Combinations marked with an 104210.png are so marked because they do not create diphthongs but rather long vowels, which are not distinctive in Katalopsi; those marked with a 104212.png indicate a diphthong that is impossible because it is not anti-harmonious; and finally, the 104214.png indicates that the potential combination is a simple gap, meaning that although it is anti-harmonious, it simply doesn’t occur in the language.

Practice these diphthongs as though they are always realized as one vowel quality gliding into another. In §1.3, we will describe conditions under which the pronunciation of some diphthongs is simplified. For now, we turn our attention to the syllable.

1.2: SYLLABLES

At this point, you should have a handle on the most basic sounds of the language—the tones, the consonants, and the vowels. The next step is to combine the sounds into larger structures. The next biggest structure is the syllable, the rhythmic units of language.

Many people have an intuitive idea of the syllable, but if you have any doubts about your ability to identify one in general, the best way to learn to distinguish them is to see a few examples. Consider the word epiphany. If you were to break this word down into smaller rhythmic parts, how would you do it? In fact, the breakdown would look like this: e-pi-pha-ny. Try saying each of the four parts of this word slowly, and you will be well on your way to identifying syllables.

What about the word manliness? There is an important difference between the syllables of this word and those of epiphany. Looking at the breakdown man-li-ness, you will notice that two syllables have consonants after their vowels, unlike the syllables in epiphany. This reflects a fact about the syllable, namely that it has three parts, the onset, the nucleus, and the coda.

In the monosyllabic word sand, for example, 〈s〉 appears in the onset, 〈a〉 in the nucleus, and 〈nd〉 in the coda. It is an important facet of the syllabic structure of Katalopsi words that the coda is always underlyingly empty. The onset will be filled by consonants—if it is filled at all—and the nucleus may be filled by either a consonant or a vowel. The exact nature of these smaller parts of the syllable delineate the syllabic type, and this distinction between types will be useful in our discussion of lexicology in chapter 2.

1.2.1: SYLLABLE TYPES

1.2.1.1: Type I Syllables

This first group of syllables are the simplest of the language. They involve what are called syllabic consonants, meaning the syllable is rhythmically significant while lacking a vowel. While this method of creating syllables is not pervasive in English by any means, it is not altogether absent. Consider what it means to say, Mmm or Mhm. These utterances have syllabic structure even though they lack vowels. In some dialects of English, the consonant 〈r〉, as in read, can also occur as a vowel. It is common, for example, in American English to pronounce the words herd, first, and learn with 〈r〉 as the vowel. The vowels of these words—in the traditional sense of spelling—are in these cases entirely orthographic.

This sort of syllabification of consonants is much more common in Katalopsi, where eight distinct consonants may occur within the nucleus of the syllable. When this happens, no other consonant appears in the syllable—either in the onset or the coda. Table 5 lays out these eight consonants with examples:

Table 5. Syllabic Consonants

Though this type of syllable consists of a single consonant, they are just the same able to carry tone like vowels, as you can see by the above examples. However, not all eight tones are available to Type I syllables. Instead, they occur with four of the basic tones—the rising, falling, high, and low tones—and just one of the complex tones—the mordent tone.

1.2.1.2: Type II Syllables

The second group of syllables are slightly more complex than that of the previous section. Type II syllables always have a monophthongic vowel, which means that consonants can fill the onset slot. However, only eleven of the fourteen total consonants discussed can appear in these syllables, as 〈v〉, 〈z〉, and 〈g〉 are exclusive to Type I syllables.

While Type II syllables differ in the distribution of sounds both in the nucleus and in the coda, they are identical to Type I syllables in the set of available tones: Type II syllables are able to use the rising, falling, high, low, and mordent tones. We have seen several Type II syllables this chapter, but for convenience, consider the following examples:

1.2.1.3: Type III Syllables

With respect to the consonants appearing in the onset slot, Type III syllables have an identical distribution to Type II syllables. However, they are the most complex class, in that they strictly use diphthongic vowels (not either syllabic consonants or monophthongs) and that they can use all eight tones.

Tone has a distinct pattern of realization when vocalized over diphthongs. While high and low vowels behave predictably, with the respective pitches carried over both vowel qualities, it may be less obvious how the other tones ought to behave.

The rising and falling tones are analogous sounds, and thus their realization over a diphthong is much the same. The rising tone begins at a relatively low pitch at the start of the first vowel of the diphthong and then rises to a relatively high pitch by the end of the second vowel. By the same token, the falling tone begins at a relatively high pitch at the start of the diphthong, falling to a relatively low pitch by the end. In short, these tones mimic their realization over monophthong vowels but are stretched over two vowel qualities instead.

The neutral and mordent tones only occur as a couplet in Type III syllables. The first vowel of the diphthong is realized as a neutral tone, and then the mordent tone begins during the articulation of the second vowel.

The most complicated of circumstances arise with the rising-falling and falling-rising tones. The rising-falling tone is realized over a diphthong by producing a rising tone on the first vowel and a falling tone on the second. Analogously, the falling-rising tone is performed by articulating a falling tone on the first vowel and a rising tone on the second. While this may seem simple enough, the status of these tones as complex tones—a concept you will remember from Table 1 in §1.1.1—bears significance in how tones and vowels interact. This concept we will detail in §1.3, but before that, we must say a word about consonant clusters.

1.2.2: CONSONANT CLUSTERS

In the previous section, we discussed how Type I syllables have a syllabic consonant and an onset that cannot be filled, while Type II and Type III syllables have access to the same range of consonants for their onset slot. Although this is accurate, it glosses over the fact that multiple consonants may appear in the onset slot simultaneously. However, as with the combination of vowels into diphthongs, the consonants must cluster together in conformity with certain rules. This is known as phonotactics.

It is perhaps best to start with the consonants that cannot appear in clusters at all. We already know that three consonants, 〈v〉, 〈z〉, and 〈g〉, can only appear in the nucleus of Type I syllables, but the consonants 〈m〉, 〈n〉, and 〈j〉—while able to appear in the onset of syllables of Types II and III—are unable to cluster with other consonants in those positions.

This leaves eight consonants which may in some way cluster together: 〈p〉, 〈c〉, 〈k〉, 〈f〉, 〈s〉, 〈x〉, 〈l〉, and 〈r〉. In total, Katalopsi has eleven consonant clusters, a slim majority of which are plosives preceding the lateral approximant or the alveolar tap: 〈pl〉, 〈cl〉, 〈kl〉, 〈pr〉, 〈cr〉, and 〈kr〉. Two of the remaining five are preceded by fricatives: 〈fr〉 and 〈sr〉. And the last three are rare affricate-like clusters, combining an anterior plosive with a posterior fricative: 〈ps〉, 〈cx〉, and 〈kf〉.

For native speakers of English, clusters such as 〈cl〉, 〈fr〉, 〈ps〉, 〈cx〉, and 〈kf〉 will prove challenging and warrant practice. These are challenges you can overcome as you proceed through the next couple chapters, without concern that they will impede your progress.

With that note, we have addressed all the different ways that the basic sounds of the language—the tones, the consonants, and the vowels—can combine into larger structures. However, in the last section of this chapter, we dive into the consequences of these combinations. Sounds don’t exist in vacuums, and when they occur together in language, they interact and influence one another. This topic of interactions will be the last relating to phonology, and in the next chapter, we will turn to the lexicology and morphology of the language.

1.3: INTERACTIONS

Having read to this point, you should now have a good idea how the sounds of Katalopsi are pronounced in general. What we have discussed so far, however, is a bit more abstract than natural speech. In speaking Katalopsi, as with any natural language, sounds interact and mutually influence one another, and as a result there are several changes to pronunciation in particular environments that will make your pronunciation sound fluent.

The sounds we previously discussed are in linguistic jargon referred to as phonemes, meaning they are the idea we have about how the sounds are pronounced in the abstract, i.e. without consideration of environmental factors. In this section we will discuss allophones, or the concrete pronunciations of the sounds given the environment they find themselves in.

1.3.1: VOWEL ROUNDING

Rounding is the process by which a vowel or consonant becomes rounded due to proximity with some contextually significant sound. A sound is considered rounded when you articulate your lips roughly into a circle when you pronounce it. It is otherwise unrounded when your lips are relatively relaxed.

You may recall from earlier in this chapter that one vowel is underlyingly rounded (i.e. 〈u〉), and the others are unrounded (i.e. 〈i〉, 〈e〉, 〈a〉, 〈y〉, and 〈o〉). These unrounded vowels can become rounded when preceded by a consonant with an inherently rounded articulation. These are the sounds 〈m〉, 〈p〉, and 〈f〉,