From Word to Sentence: A Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Sentence Style

Copyright © 2016 by Bernard J. Streicher, S.J.

Library of Congress Control Number:  2014921572

ISBN:  Hardcover    978-1-5035-2319-7

            Softcover      978-1-5035-2320-3

            eBook          978-1-5035-2321-0

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Rev. date: 06/01/2016

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Contents

This table of contents lists matter by pages; but the index found at the back of the book lists them by rule, with letter and number.

Preface

A  Parts of Speech

In General

The Noun

Kinds of nouns

Gender of nouns

Person of nouns

Number of nouns

The Pronoun

Personal and possessive pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Self-pronouns

Relative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns

Indefinite pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns

The Verb

Conjugation of verbs

The principal parts of verbs

Helping verbs

Verb person and number

The Adjective

Descriptive and limiting adjectives

Possessive adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives

Relative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives

Indefinite adjectives

Numeral adjectives

Articles

The Adverb

The Preposition

The Conjunction

The Exclamatory Word

The Expletive

The Gerund

The Participle

The Infinitive

B  The Sentence: Use and Structure

Definition

Sentence Sense

Sentences According to Use

Sentences According to Structure

C  Syntax

Subjects and Predicates

Verb agreement in general

Verb agreement with compound subjects

Verb Use

Helping verbs in general

Helping verb be

Helping verb do

Helping verb have

Helping verb must

Helping verb ought

Helping verbs shall and will

Helping verbs should and would

Helping verbs may and might

Helping verbs can and could

Active and passive voice

The three moods

The tenses

Sequence of tenses

Transitive verbs and objects

Intransitive verbs and complements

Verbs confused

Case

Possessive of Nouns and Pronouns

The possessive case

The of possessive

Nominative Absolutes

Direct Address

Appositives

Restrictive and nonrestrictive appositives

Pronoun Use

Pronouns in general

Pronoun subjects, objects, and complements

Pronouns and antecedents

Personal-pronoun use

Demonstrative-pronoun use

Self-Pronoun use

Relative-pronoun use

Interrogative-pronoun use

Indefinite-pronoun use

Adjective and Adverb Use

Adjective use

Adverb use

Confusion of adjective and adverb

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

The three degrees of comparison

Forming the comparative and superlative

Using the comparative

Using the superlative

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers

Dangling, Misplaced, and Squinting Modifiers

Dangling modifiers

Misplaced modifiers

Squinting modifiers

Preposition Use

Correct preposition use

Polished preposition use

Conjunction Use

Phrases

In general

Prepositional phrases

Gerund phrases

Participial phrases

Infinitive phrases

Clauses

In general

Independent clauses

Dependent clauses

Noun clauses

Adjective clauses

Adverb clauses

D  Punctuation

End Punctuation

The Comma

The Semicolon

The Colon

The Dash

Parentheses and Brackets

Quotation Marks

Italics

The Apostrophe

The Hyphen

E  Division of Words

F  Abbreviations

G  Numbers

H  Capitals

Line and Sentence Capitals

Proper Nouns and Adjectives

Religious Terms

Religious books, prayers

Names of God

Names of the Blessed Virgin

Holy Family, events of the Redemption

Angels, Holy Souls, devils

Heaven, hell, purgatory

Churches, church members, church

Mass, the sacraments

Services, devotions, objects, symbols

Classes and orders of people in the Church

Apostolic See, papacy

Personal Titles

Places, Divisions, Directions, Buildings

Countries, Governments, and International Organizations

Organizations, Institutions, Schools

Military Groups

Titles of Works and Events

Publications, works of art

Events and eras

Charters, acts, alliances, treaties

Languages, Peoples, Academic Courses

Days, Months, Seasons, Festivals

Miscellaneous Capitals

I  Spelling

In General

The plural of nouns

Ie and ei

Ceed, cede, and sede

Prefixes

Suffixes

Study advice

Spelling List

J  Diagraming

In General

Diagraming Simple Sentences

Subject noun and predicate verb

Expletive

Direct objects

Indirect objects

Complements

Retained objects

Modifying adjective

Adverbs and adverbial nouns

Phrases in general

Noun phrases:

Prepositional adjective and adverb phrases

Infinitive adjective and adverb phrases

Participial adjective phrases

Appositives

Modifying possessives

Independent elements

Words omitted

Diagraming Compound Sentences

Diagraming Complex Sentences

Noun clauses

Adjective clauses

Adverb clauses

Mixed Dependent Clauses

Diagraming Compound-Complex Sentences

Diagraming Direct Quotations

K  The Sentence—Structure and Diction

Unity in the Sentence

Coherence in the Sentence

Modifiers

Parallel structures

Connectives and connections

Logical phrasing

Emphasis in the Sentence

Suspense sentences

Sentence Development

Combining sentences

Enumeration in the sentence

Circumstances in the sentence

Comparison and contrast in the sentence

Cause and effect in the sentence

Examples in the sentence

Repetition in the sentence

Selecting Words and Phrases

The right word

The concrete and the particular word

The Manner of Telling

In general

Figures of speech

Color in writing

Suggestion

Rhythm

Sentence structure and diction checklist

L  Glossary of Usage

M  Sentence Exercises

1. Sentence sense

2. Punctuation between clauses

3. Punctuation of introductory phrases

4. Punctuation of series

5. Punctuation of nonrestrictive appositives and modifiers

6. Punctuation of independent and parenthetical elements

7. Punctuation with quotations

8. Dangling and misplaced modifiers

9. Plurals and possessives

10. Faulty references and omissions

11. Case of pronouns

12. Principal parts and tenses

13. Verbs confused

14. Subject-verb agreement

15. Adjectives and adverbs

16. Comparison of adjectives and adverbs

17. Errors of idiom

18. Conjunctions and clauses

19. Unified sentences

20. Coherent sentences

21. Parallel structure

22. Emphatic sentences

23. Word choice

24. General sentence review

25. Sentence combining

Preface

Writing Handbook 2nd edition was published by Loyola Press in 1996. It was a major revision and expansion of the original Writing Handbook. The present volume, From Word to Sentence, is significant in two ways: it is an updated version of the 1996 edition and is the first of two volumes.

The first volume is essentially the first half of the 1996 edition with the addition of the glossary and sentence exercises from the final section of the 1996 edition. The revised volume has an updated section on usage, an expanded glossary of frequently misused words and phrases, additional sentence exercises in grammar, usage style, diction, along with exercises in sentence combining.

This is a student’s and editor’s textbook: both a reference book and a guide to effective composition. It would be difficult to find a textbook with a more thorough coverage of grammar, usage, and diagraming. As with the 1996 edition, this book is carefully and thoroughly indexed. Users possessing only general knowledge of terminology will readily be able to find the material they are looking for.

B.J.S.

A Word on Grammar and the Type of Grammar Used in This Book

Grammar provides a precise way of talking about language. It studies the various classes of words, their functions, and relations as they occur in sentences. In American schools, the English language has traditionally been studied and taught to native speakers of English from the point of view of how the words, their arrangements, and functions contribute to the meanings of the commonly accepted form of English. Such traditional grammar is prescriptive; that is, it attempts to teach how to speak and write correctly according to socially accepted standards. This kind of grammar usually presumes that a student knows the meaning of a sentence and then, by logical analysis, attempts to show how the elements can be said to contribute to that meaning. In other words, it begins with meaning and only subsequently considers how the forms contribute to the meaning.

Traditional grammar has roots in eighteenth-century English grammar and, even earlier, in the classical models of Latin grammar used during the Renaissance. In turn, this grammar can ultimately be traced through Donatus to an early Latin grammarian, Priscian, who taught Latin to Greeks in sixth-century Constantinople. For the most part, he discussed Latin in the meaning categories used in Greek (the language of his students), which were different from the meaning categories and arrangements of forms used in Latin. Although this kind of grammar has been called traditional, it is really quite different from what earlier Sanskrit, Greek, and Roman grammarians attempted––howsoever imperfectly; namely, to write structural or descriptive grammars.

Rather than beginning with meaning, structural grammar attempts to describe the patterned system of signals that convey meaning. It thus tends to be descriptive rather than prescriptive and concentrates on formal patterns rather than on the meaning that individual languages may convey in different and often contrasting ways. This sort of grammar tends, as traditional grammar does, to be synchronic rather than diachronic; that is, it describes how the language works now rather than how the patterns or mechanisms developed historically.

Historical grammars explore language change; they attempt to explain the current patterns of a language in terms of the historical influences that affected the phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical, and cultural levels of that language. These studies made exceptional progress during the nineteenth century and in the first quarter of the twentieth century.

More recently, transformational-generative grammar has attempted to account for language phenomena by viewing language as a set of rules that specify the competence of a speaker of a particular language. This grammar shows how basic sentences can be changed and combined, and also gives insight into the creative mind and the way language is learned. Sociolinguistics examines the complex relationships that exist between language and society.

Each of the various types of grammar just described has different objectives, focus, and methodology; and each has made its contribution to an understanding of the English language. In recent times, structural and transformational-generative grammars have been particularly useful. But because their methods of analysis are relatively complex, traditional grammar (often with modifications) is still taught in most schools in the United States today. In addition, traditional grammar terminology is commonly used in foreign-language instruction. For its general utility, then, traditional grammar is used in this book.

A

Parts of Speech

In General

A1 Words are classified as parts of speech chiefly according to the way in which they are used in sentences, though they can be classified to some extent according to what they mean outside of sentences.

A2 There are eight parts of speech: nouns,¹ pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and exclamatory words (interjections). Other elements of speech are the expletives (it and there) and the verbals (gerunds, participles, and infinitives).

A3 The same word, spelled the same way, can sometimes be several parts of speech in turn.

The Noun

A4 A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. (Thing includes not only objects but also qualities or conditions, actions, ideas, and so on.)

Janet doesn’t like that color.

Look at this picture of the Kennedy Space Center.

Kinds of nouns

A5 A common noun is the name shared by all persons or things of the same kind. It can be applied to every member of a group or class of things.

A6 A proper noun is the particular name of a particular person, place, or thing.

A7 A concrete noun is the name of something that exists by itself. Often, not always, such a thing is perceived by the senses.

A8 An abstract noun is the name of a quality or an attribute apart from any object. It sometimes names the general as opposed to the particular.

A9 A collective noun is the name of a group of persons or a group of things.

Gender of nouns

A10 Nouns are of masculine gender when they carry with them the notion of the male sex.

The boy looked searchingly at me.

My uncle really did intend to pay the rent.

The stallion reared his fine head.

A11 Nouns are of feminine gender when they carry with them the notion of the female sex.

The girl says she heard no call.

The waitress sniffed and disappeared.

My aunt hopes to attend the classes for adults.

The mare was altogether proud of the colt and showed it.

A12 Many feminine and masculine gender nouns are now replaced by words that have become gender inclusive.

A13 Nouns are of common (masculine or feminine) gender when they do not distinguish between the sexes.

People are funny.

Parents often have no way of letting a child know how completely they understand the problems of young social life.

It is dangerous to take a bone from a dog.

The flight attendant was very helpful.

A14 Nouns are of neuter gender when they name things that have no sex.

A great rock lay some yards to the left.

The idea was new to me.

A15 Some sexless entities are given masculine or feminine gender by tradition or necessity.

We have much in common with our sister school.

She loved God because he first loved her.

A16 Some sexless things are sometimes given a gender in lively or poetic writing.

She was a graceful ship, much in love with speed.

That ol’ man river, he don’t say nuthin’.

A17 The vegetable kingdom is ordinarily treated as neuter.

The tree lay in ruins, its upended roots high in the air.

Now here is a blossom that certainly has not wasted its sweetness on the desert air.

A18 Collective nouns naming groups as groups (not as individuals) are treated as neuter.

The crowd had its attention diverted by the frantically waving man on the fire escape.

As usual, the army overextended its supply lines.

A19 The common-noun names of very young children are often treated as neuter in passages where the sex of the child has no bearing on the thought.

A child [an infant, a baby] has its rights no less than an adult.

A20 The common-noun names of animals are often treated as neuter regardless of the thought of the passage.

A hen is perfectly happy trying to hatch a darning egg along with its own real eggs.

Person of nouns

A21 A noun that designates the speaker is in the first person.

This revolver belongs to me, James Horder.

A22 A noun that designates the person or thing spoken to is in the second person.

I mean you, Bill.

For you, my country, I will gladly die; but I had rather live.

A23 A noun that designates the person or thing spoken of is in the third person.

St. Barbara is the patron of gunners and miners.

Number of nouns

²

A24 A singular noun names one person or thing; a plural noun names more than one person or thing.

A25 Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning; other nouns are singular in form and either singular or plural in meaning.

The news is all good.

Measles is catching.

Physics is my most difficult subject.

Politics is not my field.

The sheep is lost.

The scissors is (or are) in the drawer.

The sheep have been slaughtered.

Moose are to be found in Canada and the northern United States.

The Pronoun

A26 A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or other substantive.

A27 The antecedent of the pronoun is the noun whose place the pronoun takes.

A28 Some words may be thought of as nouns, pronouns, or adjectives. They differ from ordinary pronouns, in that they can modify an implied but unexpressed noun.

Personal and possessive pronouns

A29 The personal pronouns indicate the speaker (first person), the person or thing spoken to (second person), or the person or thing spoken of (third person).

The personal pronouns are as follows:

Personal pronouns in the possessive case are always used as adjectives: "This is my hat." They are sometimes called possessive adjectives. (See A83.)

A30 The possessive pronouns denote either ownership or origin or source.

The possessive pronouns are as follows:

The possessive pronouns are always used as nouns, or substantives, and are always in either the nominative or the objective case: "This hat is mine; give him his."³

A31 He, his, and him are used when the antecedent is masculine or common; she, hers, and her, when the antecedent is feminine; it and its, when the antecedent is neuter. The rest of the personal pronoun forms are used no matter what the gender of the antecedent.

On the witness stand, the police officer testified that he had fired in self-defense.

Grace decided to buy the orange hat, even though she thought it was rather expensive.

Demonstrative pronouns

A32 The demonstrative pronouns are as follows:

A33 The demonstrative pronouns are used to specify, to point out, to call attention to their antecedents with special emphasis.

This is my choice.

I did not say that.

This is fine; that simply will not do.

Deliver those to my home; these I’ll take with me.

A34 The demonstrative pronouns take the place of their antecedents; they do not accompany and modify nouns as the demonstrative adjectives do.

A35 The demonstrative pronouns have the same forms for all persons, genders, and cases.

A36 This and these ordinarily refer to what is present, near, just referred to, or about to be referred to; that and those to what is more remote in time or place.

Look at this [referring to something near the speaker].

Look at that [referring to something across the room].

People call me stupid. This would anger me if I did not reflect that they would call me something worse if they knew me better.

And now this is what I am going to say to you.

A37 Demonstrative that and those are used to refer to the thing or idea indicated or understood from the situation or context.

The writing is that of Claiborne, but the sentiments are not hers.

That is why I like you––you are always prompt.

[the first word spoken to a man who has just entered a room]

Self-pronouns

A38 The self-pronouns (compound personal pronouns) are as follows:

A39 Himself is used when the antecedent is masculine or common; herself, when the antecedent is feminine; itself, when the antecedent is neuter. The rest of the self-pronouns are used no matter what the gender of the antecedent.

It has been said of Abe Lincoln that he pulled himself up by his own bootstraps.

My sister climbed the tree herself and rescued her kitten before the fire truck arrived.

A large boulder detached itself from the mass atop the hill and began to roll down toward us with increasing momentum.

I found myself wishing that we had not involved ourselves with such a reckless group.

A40 When a self-pronoun is used to show that the action is reflected upon the doer of the action, it is called a reflexive pronoun.

A41 As reflexives, the self-pronouns can be used only in the objective case as direct objects, indirect objects, or the objects of prepositions.

Turner has betrayed herself. [direct object]

That week Rossiter gave himself no peace. [indirect object]

Of ourselves we can do nothing. [object of a preposition]

A42 When a self-pronoun is not used as described in A40 but merely in apposition as reinforcement for another word in the sentence, it is called an intensive pronoun.⁴

He himself trained the seals.

He trained the seals himself.

A43 As intensives, the self-pronouns may be used in apposition with a word in the nominative or objective case.

She herself voted against the proposal twice.

We met none other than our neighbors themselves downtown.

Here is a picture of Mary herself when she was two.

I myself have no objections to the plan.

It was necessary that the captain himself set the course.

Relative pronouns

⁵

A44 The relative pronouns are as follows:

⁶

A45 The relative pronouns take the place of nouns and join or relate a dependent (adjective) clause to an antecedent in another clause.

I know the girl whom you mean.

The moon, which was rising, looked huge and yellow.

I want the one that I saw first.

A46 In general, use relative who and that⁷ when the antecedent is a person or a personification, and which and that when the antecedent is not a person.⁸

That boy whom I considered so worthless turned out to be the most reliable back on the team.

That boy that I considered so worthless turned out to be the most reliable back on the team.

The wheel, which fell off, rolled into the canal and sank.

The wheel that fell off rolled into the canal and sank.

A47 Relative which is often preferred to who when the antecedent is a collective noun naming a group of persons as a group and not as individuals.

The committee, which met regularly, deserved its pay.

I consulted the band, which didn’t like the idea at all.

The crowd, which had been quiet, broke into a roar.

The audience, which was larger than expected, filled the hall.

A48 Where the antecedent nouns are both persons and things, use relative that when you can; use which when you cannot use that, or reword the sentence.

Where are the people and the money that will save our school?

Judy Kerr and her dogs, of which I have spoken so often, have gone to Hollywood.

Judy Kerr, of whom I have spoken so often, has gone to Hollywood with her dogs.

A49 The relative pronouns have the same form for all persons and numbers. (In other words, who, that, and which have only one form for first, second, and third person and for singular and plural number.)

A50 A relative pronoun refers to an antecedent in another clause. This fact makes a relative pronoun and its adjective clause easy to distinguish from (a) an interrogative or indefinite pronoun or adjective and its noun clause, (b) the demonstrative-pronoun and demonstrative-adjective that, and (c) the conjunction that.

Interrogative pronouns

A51 The interrogative pronouns are as follows:

A52 The interrogative pronouns are so called because they ask questions.

Whom do you want?

No one asked me, what did I want?

No one asked me what I wanted.

Who wrote Moby Dick?

Whose is that beautiful dog?

Which is the one you like?

A53 Use interrogative who in any kind of question when the antecedent is a person. Use interrogative what when the antecedent is not a person.

Whom do you want?

Whose is this pastrami sandwich?

What are you carrying?

What do you think of these?

A54 You may use interrogative pronoun which whether or not the antecedent is a person, but only in questions involving a choice.⁹

Which did you choose, Myron or Clark?

Which did you choose, the trip to Miami or the scholarship?

In ascending order of good English:

Which is the better quarterback?

Which of the two is the better quarterback?

Who is the better quarterback?

A55 The interrogative pronouns are all third person.

Who of us is brave enough to take the man’s dare?

Who of us are brave enough to take their places?

Which of us are going?

Whose are these?

Indefinite pronouns

¹⁰

A56 Some common indefinite pronouns are as follows:

A57 The indefinite pronouns are so called because they often take the place of antecedents that are not named and that cannot be pinned down to any particular persons, places, or things.

Anybody coming through the door would trip.

One of these has onions on it.

I found nobody with whom to play cricket.

Whatsoever you do, do it from the heart.

In this business, anything can happen.

I want whatever you want.

A58 All, any, more, none, and some are singular pronouns if they indicate how much; they are plural if they indicate how many.¹¹

All of the cake was burned.

All of the cakes were burned.

Was any of the cake burned?

Were any of the cakes burned?

Some of the cake was burned.

Some of the cakes were burned.

We looked for crepe paper, but there is none.

None of the people you expected have come.

A59 If the antecedent is exclusively masculine, treat the indefinite pronoun as masculine; if the antecedent is exclusively feminine, treat the indefinite pronoun as feminine.

A60 In formal writing and speaking, when the antecedent is both masculine and feminine, use an inclusive gender form in such cases when this can be done without awkwardness and without loss of meaning.

Everyone has his own share of joys and sorrows.

All people have their share of joys and sorrows.

The policeman who did this showed his considerable skill.

The police officer who did this showed considerable skill.

A majority of these gender-problem sentences can either be rephrased into the plural or reworded in such a way in the singular that the problem is eliminated. (See C239, C242, K91.)

A61 Singular indefinites are all third person. Plural indefinites get their person (also number and gender) from their antecedents (usually found in a following prepositional phrase).

Each of you has a funny look on his face.

All of you have funny looks on your faces.

All of us have funny looks on our faces.

Reciprocal pronouns

A62 The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are called reciprocal because they are used in pairs to show an interaction.

The twins helped each other.

Each helped the other.

The soldiers slaughtered one another mercilessly.

One slaughtered another.

A63 Use each other to refer to only two; one another to refer to more than two.

The Verb

A64 A verb is a word that expresses the actuality of its subject. Either it shows the subject as acting or as being acted upon; or it shows the subject as possessing an attribute, or character, or a relation; or it shows the subject as having actuality.

Tim ran forward and was shot.

You have good looks and good manners; you have good clothes.

God exists.

Conjugation of verbs

A65 Model conjugation of the verb praise:

¹²

¹³

¹⁴

A66 Conjugation of the verb be:

¹⁵

A67 A progressive form of the verb be (usually followed by a predicate adjective) exists, but as a general rule, only in the following moods and tenses:

The principal parts of verbs

A68 The principal parts of a verb are those forms from which all the voices, moods, and tenses of the verb can be formed. They are the present infinitive; the past indicative, first person singular; and the past participle.

A69 The greater number of verbs regularly form their past indicative and past participle by adding d, ed, or t to the present infinitive.

A70 The principal parts of the following verbs sometimes cause difficulty.

¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰