Jurji Zaidan and the Foundations of Arab Nationalism

PART ONE

Jurji Zaidan’s Secular Analysis of History and Language as a Foundation of Arab Nationalism

Thomas Philipp

I

Introduction

Jurji Zaidan was one of the great pioneers of the Nahda Movement. As a scholar and scientist he was a relentless promoter of new ideas, concepts, and knowledge; he considered it his mission to enlighten and educate society. Zaidan was also a creative interpreter of language and an innovative historian. He was one of the first and certainly among the most important and prolific authors to write historical novels and serialize them. A self-made man, he was also an entrepreneur and a businessman. As a member of the bourgeoisie, Zaidan was well accepted and respected in modern Cairene society, and nothing would have been further from his mind than the thought of radical or violent revolutionary change. Yet his radical new thought, which he so successfully spread through his innovative journal al-Hilal,¹ his novels, and his scholarly works, contributed in essential ways to the transformation of Arab society.

Today Zaidan is mainly remembered in the Arab world for his historical novels. Several generations of Arabs were introduced to their own history through these novels, and even to this day, over a hundred years after their initial publication, they are periodically reprinted. However, by contrast, Zaidan’s scholarly works on Arab history, the Arabic language, and Arab literature, as well as his reflections on society, are hardly acknowledged today.² In Anglo-European scholarship on the modern Middle East, Zaidan is practically unknown and his contribution to the articulation of Arab nationalism is hardly perceived, although recently a new interest in his novels can be observed in the field of comparative literature. Various reasons can be given for this situation, and we will discuss some of them later. But certainly the most important one is to be found in the historiography of Arab nationalism or, to be precise, in its two narratives, the English and the Arabic.

The English narrative of Arab nationalism was for a long time determined by George Antonius’s book on the subject.³ Antonius himself was the child of Syrian immigrants in Egypt. He later took employment with the British Mandate’s authorities in Palestine and became a prominent member of the Arab Palestinian movement.⁴ In his book, he located the origins of Arab nationalism in Syria—and especially in Beirut—among Christian Arabs educated by the missionaries. But according to Antonius, they learned many languages and lost touch with Arabic; hence, they lost their interest in Arab nationalism. The decisive moment for this development, Antonius said, was the switch from Arabic to English as the language of instruction at the Syrian Protestant College. The education of Muslim Arabs was much poorer than what was offered in the missionary schools, but it was in Arabic. In this way, according to Antonius, the Muslim Arabs became the torchbearers of Arab nationalism against the ‘Abdülhamidian tyranny. From here Antonius continued directly to individuals such as Kawakibi⁵ as among the torchbearers.⁶ The whole structure of his narrative later focuses on political events during and after World War I in geographical Syria, where he worked, was politically engaged, and, presumably, had access to documents. Clearly Egypt did not belong to this narrative, including by implication everything that happened in Egypt—for instance the whole Arab Nahda Movement that was developed and promoted predominantly by the Syrian immigrants in Egypt. Zaidan, of whom and of whose work Antonius certainly must have been aware, is not even mentioned in the index of his book. One generation later Sylvia Haim also failed to mention Zaidan or include him in her anthology, which was published in 1962 and republished in 1976.⁷ Yet she was by 1954 very critical of Antonius as a historian.⁸

Also in 1962, Albert Hourani published his seminal work, but he made only a fleeting reference to the role of the journals al-Muqtataf and al-Hilal. He remarked somewhat later: But perhaps it was Jurji Zaidan who did more than any other to create a consciousness of the Arab past.⁹ Cleveland observed in 1971: "In conjunction with al-Husri’s contributions, Constantine Zurayq’s The National Consciousness¹⁰ and Ali Nasir al-Din’s The Arab Question¹¹ are generally recognized as the outstanding initial [sic] attempts to introduce the basic concepts of nationalism and unity to the Arabs."¹² Note here that there is not a word about Zaqi al-Arsuzi,¹³ Antun Sa‘adeh,¹⁴ or Michel ‘Aflaq,¹⁵ national thinkers and contemporaries of al-Husri; nor is there any mention of their predecessor Jurji Zaidan.

In the late 1970s monographs about persons as well as intellectual history became unpopular in historiography.¹⁶ Class analysis and structuralism were the new approaches. Ernest Dawn demonstrated how such approaches could be used with excellent results.¹⁷ His work dealt mainly with Arab ruling elites before and after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, and it did not show much interest in the intellectuals and ideologues of Arab nationalism. In 1991 a book appeared that looked specifically at the beginnings of Arab nationalism. But it, too, continued what had by now become a tradition: Zaidan’s name cannot even be found in the index, his works are not mentioned in the general bibliography on primary sources, and there is no mention of him in the footnotes of any article.¹⁸ This tradition was continued in 2003 by Yasir Suleiman.¹⁹ He deals summarily with the period before World War I and chooses, of all people, Ibrahim al-Yaziji as an example for the development of language, although al-Yaziji²⁰ was highly critical of the language simplifications made by the Nahdawis. Suleiman then moves to Sati‘ al-Husri as the most important exponent of the ideology of Arab nationalism²¹ and deals with his approach to Arabic.

The Arabic version of the narrative of Arab nationalism is quickly summarized—and Cleveland was its first victim by taking Sati‘ al-Husri too much at face value. Al-Husri liked to quote German Romantic and nationalist thinkers of the early nineteenth century such as Johann G. Fichte, Friedrich E. D. Schleiermacher, and Ernst M. Arndt. By the time al-Husri became a proponent and spokesman of Arab rather than Turkish nationalism, some twenty-five volumes of Zaidan’s journal al-Hilal along with his scholarly works were readily available to him. But he never discussed particular positions of Zaidan or even mentioned him in his work, though there were many themes of common interest he shared with Zaidan, such as the role of the Arab language and the reinterpretation of the Jahiliyya.²² This is especially peculiar since we can assume that al-Husri was familiar with the works of Zaidan, even if only through reading al-Hilal. But al-Husri does not mention his contemporary Zaqi al-Arsuzi either, and the latter returns the favor.²³ Al-Arsuzi, when discussing the importance of the Arabic language in Arab nationalism, referred frequently to his professor at the Sorbonne, Henri Bergson, but never to Zaidan. Antun Saadeh and, to my knowledge, Michel ‘Aflaq also never referred to the works of Zaidan. These writers’ motives in not mentioning Zaidan in their works might differ: for example, Antonius simply was not interested in the Arab Nahda beyond certain—limited—aspects of it in Beirut. Others apparently felt that deriving arguments for Arab nationalism from European thinkers would invest them with more legitimacy than quoting other Arab intellectuals.

The present volume is an attempt to rectify the neglect of Zaidan’s scholarly work and to evaluate his intellectual contribution to the Arab Awakening.²⁴ On the surface he is today vaguely known as a thinker on Arabism and a promoter of Arab nationalism. Though this observation is not false, his real intellectual contribution lay in the way he came to view and promote Arabism. The theme of this study is to show how Zaidan replaced a religious model of explanation for historical change with a secular one borrowed from the modern natural sciences, in particular the theory of evolution. Zaidan was able thereby to separate Arab history and the Arabic language from Islamic history or, to be more precise, to transform the latter into one phase of Arab history, which, in his view, stretched from antiquity until his own days. The influence of the Enlightenment’s vision of man as a thinking, responsible individual guided by reason and even more by the natural sciences and the theory of evolution led him to a secularized analysis of history and culture. A radically secular view lay at the root of Zaidan’s nationalism and his vision of the development of Arab society. His analyses of Arab history and literature provided an Arab identity that in turn constituted the basis for Arab nationalism.

Since the French Revolution, nationalism was a driving power to restructure empires, tribes, ethnicities, and enlightened absolutist states into modern nation-states. The basic idea of nationalism is as simple and attractive as it is historically highly questionable: The doctrine holds that humanity is naturally divided into nations, that nations are known by certain characteristics which can be ascertained, and that the only legitimate type of government is national self-government.²⁵ It should be added that one of this doctrine’s most important characteristics was the assumption that every such nation lived exclusively in a well-circumscribed, contiguous territory with inhabitants that spoke the same language. Much ink and more blood were spilled over the next two hundred years to make this doctrine a physical and historical reality.

Historically, there existed two principal ways of establishing a nation-state. In the first case a centralized sovereign state already existed with its own infrastructure and defined borders and an official—that is, administrative—language. An absolute monarch was deposed by a class or group, with the claim of the right of the people to self-government. It was the task of intellectuals before and after the revolution to establish the fact that subjects indeed constituted one nation and that its members were citizens with inalienable rights. Given the territorial circumscription of the state and its centralized organization, this was not so difficult. The real task of the new political elite was to convert the existing institutions of the state into forms that would enable self-government and political participation by the citizen. France is the obvious example for this case, even though it would take a full century after the Revolution for Parisian French to become firmly established as the official language, while the true separation of state and church came only at the beginning of the twentieth century. In the Middle East, Egypt under Muhammad ‘Ali,²⁶ until the ‘Urabi Rebellion in 1882, was the perfect example of this case. His state was very comparable to states of Enlightened Absolutism in Europe. He established a centralized administration; Arabic gradually became the official language and Cairo was the seat of power. The borders of Egypt also were definitively established, albeit much against the will of Muhammad ‘Ali, when the European powers forced Egypt out of Syria in 1840. In the years after Muhammad ‘Ali’s rule the army became increasingly Egyptianized and the first Egyptians entered the officer corps. One of them was ‘Urabi, who, in alliance with key members of the recently established parliament, tried to reduce the powers of the ruler. The rebellion of 1882 led to the British occupation and ended the first attempt to establish a measure of self-rule.

In the second case there is no centralized sovereign state that can easily form a nation-state. Here the task of the intellectual and the national ideologue was to establish a consciousness among a certain population—not defined territorially by political borders. That population would acquire a national identity that eventually would enable it to stake out a territory on which to build a nation-state. Here the emphasis must be much more on common origins, culture, language, and history precisely because a state that coincided with the spread of the population as a structural frame is missing. In this case a much larger value is attached to the emotional unity of the nation than to the rights of the individual and the participatory structure of power. The borders of the territory to be converted into a nation-state are typically fairly vague. In Europe, the first example was Germany, which because of its strategic position in central Europe and the vagaries of history never had formed a single centralized state. The German national movement was consequently characterized by its preoccupation with language and German history, real or imagined, and a heavy emphasis on the emotional unity of the people.

In the Middle East the relevant example is, of course, Bilad al-Sham²⁷ or, as it was increasingly called in the second half of the century, Syria. Though geographically a relatively well-defined territory, this entity had never coincided with a single political entity in its long history. The region had always been either part of a larger empire because of its geostrategic importance or had been split into a number of mini-states, often playing proxy for one or the other neighboring empire. Hence the uncertainty in the early Arab nationalist movement about whether Syria referred to all the Arab lands, to Bilad al-Sham, or perhaps only to Lebanon. This uncertainty, however was counterbalanced by the construction of a national Arab history, stretching from Hammurabi to modern civilization, and the successful creation of a profoundly reformed modern Arab print language understood by all literate Arabic speakers.

This short and somewhat schematic sketch of the course of national movements is not designed to create the impression that national movements were neat affairs with clear-cut results. Too many other factors, such as internal power struggles and international relations, interfered with such a linear development. For the doctrine of nationalism to have any semblance of realism required that nations and their territories be made to coincide. This happened more in the twentieth century than in the nineteenth with mass migrations, expulsions, deportations, and ethnic cleansing of whole population groups. Sometimes formal administrative actions were taken, such as the transfer of populations between Turkey and Greece in 1923. The results were always the same: many lost lives and massive streams of refugees in both the Middle East and Europe.

The point I want to make with this sketch is to clarify the link between national ideology and national political action. The doctrine of nationalism was such a radical break with past experiences that it needed the work of scholars and ideologues to construct secular histories and national languages, to legitimize national movements, to create a new national identity, and to claim a specific territory as their own. To be effective, every national program and political action needed the work of scholars and ideologues.

Other aspects of Zaidan’s work, such as the development of his political thought after the Young Turk Revolution, his position on gender issues, or his literary work (the historical novels), have been largely left out of this essay. The reason for this is not that secularization did not touch them (it did) but rather due to the mundane limits of space. One of the purposes of this study is to familiarize the English reader with Zaidan’s own writings that are pertinent to the issues dealt with in the essay. Considering the enormous scope and output of his writings, those that will be discussed here can only be a very small, but hopefully representative, selection of the topics he covered and of his thought. It is hoped that additional studies will deal with other aspects of Zaidan’s work and will help to define and establish even more the role he played in modern Arab thought and the impact the Nahda had upon him.

The term Nahda comes from the Arabic root n-h-ḍ, which means a single act of rising, a motion or movement . . . also power, ability, strength.²⁸ In 1870 the term lacked any particular abstract meaning or connotation of a specific historical event.²⁹ When in 1868 al-Yaziji addressed his famous ode to the Arabs, Arise Ye Arabs and Awake, he did not use the term.³⁰ During the following twenty years, however, the term with this specific connotation must have become accepted. In 1888 al-Muqtataf used the term in connection with the contemporary development of Arab medicine.³¹ In 1892 an article by Zaidan titled The Latest Egyptian Nahda appeared in the first volume of his magazine al-Hilal.³² Neither in 1888 nor in 1892 is the term explained, which implies that readers were by then familiar with it.

The term al-Nahḥa is most often translated as Renaissance or Arab Renaissance, just as the European Renaissance is translated in Arabic as al-nahḍa al-urubbiyya. To speak of the Nahda as a Renaissance suggests a European frame of history as a reference and as a normative standard of historical development. Such terminology, ironically, has always implied a European denial of historical development in Arab society or, for that matter, in the entire non-European world. The normative sequence of Renaissance, Humanism, Reformation, Revolution, and so on could not be recognized in non-European histories. Therefore Europeans considered only their own historical sequence to represent valid phases of progress. This denial of historical progress led in the worst case to a racist sense of European superiority and in its most benign version to the claim these historical phases had taken centuries to develop in Europe and would take as long in the non-European world. Following the assumed normative character of European historical development was expected as a development that each culture had to experience on its own. If the European experience was not available to them, historical maturity of these cultures would be pushed into an uncertain future.

The Arab Nahda—henceforth I shall use the Arabic term—is also often described as a movement of renewal and innovation in Arabic literature.³³ This is true; but it was much more than that. It referred to, reproduced, and analyzed in the widest sense all aspects of modernity as it was developing in Europe and America—in contrast to the European Renaissance, which referred to a classical period of the past. But it would be wrong to reduce the Nahda to a mere translation movement and a copying of the concepts and ideas of modernity. In the process of translating, summarizing, or adapting texts into Arabic, the works were analyzed, criticized, and put into a relevant Arab societal context. More than that, they were publicly debated by the newly introduced literary genre of periodicals, which created a new educated and politically savvy public.³⁴

The antecedents of the Arab Nahda can be traced to the first half of the nineteenth century in Egypt and Syria, and possibly to the eighteenth century in the latter region. Al-Jayyusi identifies Aleppo as the first center of a classicist revival of Arabic, where Christians attended classes with Muslim shaykhs. She claims that in Syria—in contrast to Egypt, where education was monopolized by al-Azhar—clerks and secretaries, too, played a role in poetry and belles-lettres.³⁵ In the first generation she includes Jirmanus Farhat (1670–1732), a Maronite patriarch, lexicographer, grammarian, and poet, first of the arabized Syrians [Christians] to achieve classical purity and style. He studied in Aleppo with Christian and Muslim scholars.³⁶ In 1789 a Maronite priests’ seminary was established in ‘Ayn Waraka, Mount Lebanon, where the language of instruction was Arabic. Some participants in this early Nahda, like Butrus al-Bustani and Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, received their first training at the new seminary, though they never entered the priesthood.³⁷

Immediate precursors, which then overlapped with the Nahda, strictly speaking, were a group in Mount Lebanon consisting of Butrus al-Bustani,³⁸ Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq,³⁹ and Nasif al-Yaziji;⁴⁰ and in Egypt, ‘Abdallah Nadim.⁴¹ They all came from educated families and were trained in Arabic language and literature, in contrast to the later Nahdawis, who often had hardly any formal education, like Zaidan himself.⁴² Their concern was the perceived decay of the Arab language, and they attempted a revival of the classical language. Composing dictionaries of the Arabic language (al-Bustani) or grammars (al-Shidyaq), reviving classical forms of Arabic literature such as the rhymed rhythmic prose of the maqāma (Nadim and al-Yaziji)—all were attempts to preserve the classical forms of language and literature. One could speak of an early Nahda, feeding on a neoclassicist revival. Though, without a doubt, those who had participated in one or the other form in the Bible translation projects⁴³ were aware of and had to acknowledge the need for a simplified language to address a wider and often uneducated public. The issue arose not only with the composition of simple textbooks for schools but also with the publication of a new genre of literature in Arabic, the journal, to which most Nahdawis contributed in one way or another. Clarity of style and readability became another issue for the early participants of the Nahda.

The difference between the early Nahda, or neoclassicist revival, and the later Nahda Movement is perhaps best explained in terms of their aims for the Arabic language. The former wanted to revive classical forms of literature, and the elaborate classical style of writing was meant to express learnedness or poetic refinement. The later Nahda Movement saw its main goal as the simplification of the written language to make it also accessible to the poorly educated reader. In time these two tendencies overlapped considerably. Even the aforementioned Bible translation project raised the issue of stylistic simplicity. Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, for instance, was much more innovative than other classicists: he adopted a highly elaborate and decorative style. Its exaggerated use of synonyms led Zaidan to claim that it made our educated people shy away from him.⁴⁴ Zaidan was a relentless protagonist of a simple and clear style, which should explain content to the reader rather than impress him with the learnedness of the author. But as late as 1910 Ibrahim al-Yaziji wrote a long essay against what he considered to be the faulty use of Arabic in newspapers.⁴⁵ This was a direct attack on the lack of formal training in Arabic literature of the members of the later Nahda Movement.

New research is elaborating the point of how far the representatives of the early Nahda distinguished themselves from the subsequent Nahda not only by their formal education in the Arabic language and literature but also in holding onto their interest in aesthetics, drawn from the classical literature and their search for harmony in nature. This contrasted sharply with the haphazard educational experience of the Nahdawis, their orientation toward modern civilization coming from Europe, and a profound concern with the marketability of their print product to new classes of readers.⁴⁶

Even the early Nahdawis, who studied in the priests’ seminary ‘Ayn Waraka, such as Butrus al-Bustani and Ahmad Faris Shidyaq, would not pursue theological studies or careers as priests. Hardly any converted to Protestantism. Most often the Nahdawis were instead attracted to the Freemasons. They believed in the Enlightenment and relied on rational thought, took an interest in the modern sciences, and discussed theories explaining the phenomena of nature. They had no vested interest in the classical Arabic language or literature, either emotional or intellectual. As Zaidan observed in his autobiography:

At that time, i.e., after the unrest of the sixties, there developed a third class amongst the people of Beirut [in addition to the elite and the masses] educated in the Christian missionary schools. . . . This third social group was determined to change the social norms from what they were to what they became, so that the contemporary morals of Beirut became comparable with the most advanced habits and customs of the Europeans.⁴⁷

And, we might add, they also changed the meaning and content of education.

Zaidan had discussed various aspects of the Nahda ever since 1892, when he first published his journal al-Hilal. He was the first to make the Nahda a topic of his historical studies.⁴⁸ He believed that the movement had started in Egypt under Muhammad ‘Ali, who wanted to reform his army and most other aspects of society. It is with Muhammad ‘Ali’s rise to power that Zaidan dated the end of Ottoman Egypt and the beginning of the modern history of Egypt. In the Egyptian context he recognized Rif‘at al-Tahtawi⁴⁹ as one of the pioneers of this Nahda. At the same time, though, he also mentioned the Syrian contemporaries of al-Tahtawi—Butrus al-Bustani, Nasif al-Yaziji, and Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq—as being part of the Nahda Movement. In his opinion the Nahda came into its own in Syria only after sectarian unrest in 1860.

The Nahda started to gain its own momentum after the unrest in Mount Lebanon in the 1840s and 1850s, and especially after the large sectarian unrest in 1860 in Damascus and the Syrian hinterland. Eventually its center shifted from Beirut to Cairo in the early 1880s, where it flourished for another generation. Several reasons can account for this shift: the missionary schools of the Americans in Lebanon provided more young men (and some young women) with a modern education than the region could absorb; the Syrian Protestant College, which was the focal point of this new intelligentsia, switched in 1882 from Arabic to English as a teaching language; censorship under Sultan ‘Abdülhamid II became more repressive; and, at the same time in Egypt under British control, the cotton-driven economy stabilized and expanded and job opportunities for people with modern skills increased. It also helped that Lord Cromer, Britain’s consul in Egypt and its de facto ruler, was apparently of the opinion that in a population with a 90 percent illiteracy rate, journalists and other indigenous writers were not dangerous and were therefore not worth the trouble of censoring.

The development of a secular educated class, the intelligentsia, constituted a clear departure from traditional society. Its members were no political radicals—they never clamored for the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire, and even the voices against the British occupation were few and far between. The vision of most was for a very gradual change of society that they themselves were called upon to guide. However, the ideas, concepts, and worldviews that they so successfully introduced and established were of an explosive character, questioning and challenging just about everything that had characterized and distinguished premodern society. From the sources of the legitimacy of political power to systems of education, the structure of society, and the concepts of knowledge and science—every aspect of premodern society was questioned.

The transitions between premodern and modern society differ according to time and place, leading to endless debates. In a global sense a decisive transition is one that proceeds from a worldview determined by a metaphysical teleology to one in which the belief of progress in this world grows out of the assumption that man is capable of rational action to improve his lot and that of society, as well as an understanding of and reliance on the power of the laws of nature. Marxism in Christian society and Zionism in Jewish society are typical examples of shifting salvation from a metaphysical place to one on earth. All national movements, claiming the right to sovereignty and self-rule, reflect this transfer. The Enlightenment and the French Revolution may be considered as the beginnings of this transition. In the Middle East the first formal step in this direction was taken in 1839 with the Hatt-i Humayun of Gülhane, the document that initiated the first Tanzimat period in the Ottoman Empire and promised among other things the equality of all subjects before the law, regardless of religion. In the Arab world it was the later Nahda Movement, starting in the middle of the nineteenth century, that created a mental earthquake felt throughout society. The Nahda was a revolutionary movement, the political results of which became evident during and after World War I.

Secularization has been and is a long-drawn-out process. Without necessarily going as far back as Harvey Cox, claiming that "the disenchantment of nature begins with Creation; the desacralization of politics with the Exodus,"⁵⁰ it is safe to say that secularization is a major defining characteristic of a modern society (perhaps even the defining characteristic). Secularization is man turning his attention from worlds beyond and toward this world and this time (saeculum = this present age), Cox says. Religion no longer provides the dominant interpretation of the events of this world. Even though, according to Cox, the forces of secularization have no serious interest in persecuting religion . . . secularization simply bypasses and undercuts religion and goes on to other things. It has relativized religious world views and thus rendered them innocuous.⁵¹ Differently formulated, secularization is the assertion of autonomy of large aspects of life, for instance, politics, law, science, art, and customs vis-à-vis religion.⁵² Secularization is the process of the disengagement of man’s interpretation of this world from religion.

The dichotomy between the secular and the sacred has often been exaggerated. In all recognizable human history, as opposed to myth, the secular and the sacred existed next to each other and were intertwined. The separation of church and state existed, de facto, since the early Middle Ages in Europe. Despite the claim that Islam permeated all aspects of society and a separate church was therefore not needed, the state and its regions were typically centered around powerful, secular elites and not based on consensus of the Muslim community. Most often the representatives of religion were even dependent on the state run by secular elites, as only the latter could guarantee security. Yet, the overall perception of the world order, the interpretation of life and its meaning in this world, was shared by all as resting in a transcendental God who could at any moment show His immanence in this World, as had been the case with the Ten Commandments given on Mount Sinai or the revelations to the Prophet Muhammad.

Secularism goes far beyond the secular character of political power or of any incidental action by human beings, that is to say, action that has no sacred quality. Secularism also challenges directly the authority of the sacred to interpret the cosmic order, the order of society, and the life of the individual. Secularism thereby becomes an essential part of modernity, asserting legitimate autonomy of various aspects of human life and nature. Recently Talal Asad has contributed to the debate on the understanding of secularism. He observes in the Christian worldview an increasing separation of God from this world:

But there is more at stake here than the immanence or transcendence of divinity in relation to the natural world. The idea of nature is itself internally transformed. For the representation of the Christian God as a being sited quite apart in the supernatural world signals the construction of a secular space that begins to emerge in early modernity. Such a space permits nature to be reconceived as manipulatable material, determinate, homogenous, and subject to mechanical laws. Anything beyond that space is therefore supernatural—a place for fanciful extension of the real world peopled by irrational events and imagined beings. This transformation had a significant effect on the meaning of myth.⁵³

Beginning in the seventeenth century, during the scientific revolution, nature became the first major subject of scientific studies in the search for observable and testable laws in nature—hence the expression natural sciences. Asad shifts from the preoccupation with studying nature, whose full development he locates in the eighteenth century, to the politics of secular liberalism in the nineteenth century, an ideology that was extremely influential in the Nahda Movement and, not surprisingly, is also reflected in Zaidan’s thought. He ascertains that the central principles of liberalism rest on assumptions about the nature of mankind and of society, which are frequently questioned, such as the equality of all humans and the existence of certain rights within human nature.⁵⁴ With Canovan he points out that in the eighteenth century ideas of liberalism were attached to a distinctive conception of nature as deep reality. Subsequently in the nineteenth century, liberals invoked nature as a realm more real than the social world, an understanding that gave them grounds for optimism about political change. The terminology of natural rights referred not simply to what men (and later, women too) should have but to what they did in fact possess in the reality of human nature that lies beneath the distorted world as it now appears.⁵⁵

He then poses the question of why the early liberal thinkers relied so much on nature as a point of reference. He assumes that in their thinking nature itself was a source of explanation and justification. But I would suggest that for most of the nineteenth century the modern scientific knowledge of nature and its laws was far more advanced than that of any of the social or human sciences. Hence it seemed that the natural sciences were by far more reliable as a source of reference of authoritative knowledge.

According to Asad the idea of human freedom and equality actually implied a counterworld—a mythical world—that provided freedom and equality, just because it was natural and without civilizational distortions.⁵⁶ Quoting Canovan he shows how the founding myth of secular liberalism about the nature of human beings is essential to legitimize secular liberalism as a project to be realized, rather than as a truth in need of discovery.⁵⁷ Expressed differently, the sacred and the secular remain interwoven because secular liberalism, too, relied on a myth for its legitimization. The secular and the sacred remained intertwined, as reflected in Fritz Stern’s astute observation, speaking of imperial Germany, where he notes a process of the secularization of religion and a sacralization of the throne.⁵⁸

Asad believes that the new science of sociology, using the theory of evolution, provided evidence of a cruel and hierarchical nature. This weakened secular liberalism at the end of the nineteenth century was to be revived, according to Asad, only after World War II in its confrontation with fascism and communism. It seems, though, that secular liberalism had a longer lease on life if we look at the various constitutional revolutions in the Middle East and elsewhere before World War I. They were driven by the ideas of equality, freedom for all human beings, and democratic rule based on constitutionalism. The above-mentioned optimism found in nature could also be found in the theory of evolution or, more precisely, in a misunderstood yet very popular version of evolution. In this version, the concept of the survival of the fittest—meaning nothing more than what best fits an incidental mutation in the environment—was confused or replaced with the idea of the best, strongest, most virtuous, intelligent, and just values, which promised to raise society to higher levels of progress. This became the basis for an unshakeable faith in progress, which was only destroyed, for different reasons, in Europe as well as in the Middle East, during and after World War I.

Jurji Zaidan relied heavily, as we will see in what follows, on the laws of nature and, more specifically, on the laws of evolution as a point of reference and source of legitimization for the approach he developed to the history of culture, language, and even religion, albeit somewhat more discreetly for the latter. He was a firm believer in the idea of progress, which for him not only was possible but followed inevitably from the laws of evolution. At the same time, though, he had his doubts about human nature. These doubts became acute with the Constitutionalist movement, an expression of secular liberalism, which led to the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, of which he became an enthusiastic supporter. Asad articulates this ambivalence, which was felt not only by Zaidan but by most of his Nahda contemporaries and many thinkers in Europe:

In fact liberal democracy . . . expresses the two secular myths that are, notoriously, at odds with each other: The Enlightenment myth of politics as a discourse of public reason whose bond with knowledge enables the elite to direct the education of mankind, and the revolutionary myth of universal suffrage. . . . The secular theory of state toleration is based on these contradictory foundations: on the one hand elite liberal clarity seeks to contain religious passion, on the other hand democratic numbers allow majorities to dominate minorities, even if both are religiously formed.⁵⁹

This was precisely the greatest bone of contention for the supporters of the Young Turk Revolution in the multiethnic and multisectarian Ottoman Empire. For a long time they believed—somewhat naively—in the efficacy of the newly established constitution to overcome these contradictions. Kurzman elaborates the point somewhat differently:

Positivist Liberalism faced a theoretical problem: . . . how to reconcile openly desired rule of the intellectuals with the often-proclaimed sovereignty of the people? The solution lay in the belief that an enlightened population would freely choose enlightened leaders. With proper education the voters would be able to identify and surely prefer the expounders of truth and progress, namely the intellectuals.⁶⁰

In the solution Kurzman offers to the predicament, he touches upon the same issue as Asad, mentioning the discourse of public reason. It is basically the free space, which Habermas believes to be necessary for the public venting and exchange of ideas and the formulation of a workable degree of consensus. Here Asad raises an important question that troubled Zaidan and his contemporaries enormously: If the performance of free speech is dependent on free listening, its effectiveness depends on the kind of listeners who can engage appropriately with what was said, as well as the time he or she has to live in.⁶¹ We find repeatedly the question asked by Zaidan and other Nahdawis, implicitly and explicitly, namely whether the public they spoke to was prepared for the great changes the educated elite planned for society. Most often the answer was that more education of the masses was needed before they could participate in the political discourse. Sometimes, as in the case of Zaidan, it meant a somewhat hesitant return to the idea of a constitution limiting the ruler rather than granting political rights to the masses.

Jurji Zaidan was perhaps more willing than his counterparts in Europe to support the notion that liberal democracy and nationalism were related projects, that is to say, people had to be educated about these projects and trained so as to become effective participants in the political discourse. The colonized citizen already faced a European model with regard to the public space of politics. With his faith in progress—evolutionary or otherwise—he could believe that his own society would join this modern world in the foreseeable future. As a nationalist he was in need of his own history, as was his European counterpart, to legitimize his claim to a nation. The longing for an idealized past that would show the way into a utopian future was not part of the secular colonial citizen’s liberal nationalism before World War I. Such longing was rather typical for European Romantic and conservative nationalists. In the Middle East its appearance was typically associated with religious fundamentalism. It was precisely the emancipation from religion-dominated worldviews that enabled Zaidan to construct a secular, national Arab history.

Unabashedly, Zaidan traced the historical origins of modernity to Europe as did the majority of the Nahdawis of the second generation. They felt they could fully adopt and participate in this European modernity and the progress it promised. Well before the British occupation of Egypt in 1882 there existed a tension in the thinking of the Nahdawis between the admiration for Europe and the fear of domination by European imperialism. But a global resentment against Europe was restricted to traditional religious scholars until World War I. Zaidan was fully aware of the profound changes this Nahda brought about. It shows how far he had gone in his lifetime of work to disengage Arab culture from Islamic history. For him it confirmed the ability of the Arab people to participate fully in a civilization (modern civilization) that was distinct from the Islamic one. To trace the mental path he took to reach this conclusion will be a major theme of the following essay.

II

Jurji Zaidan

A Short Biography

There is a wealth of information on Zaidan’s childhood and youth, perhaps more than for any other notable Arab personality before him.⁶² We have information not only on his parents, education, and apprenticeships but also about his feelings, relationships, ambitions, and likes and dislikes. The major reason for this abundance of information is the fact that Zaidan is, as far as we know, the first Arab to write an autobiography in the modern meaning of the term. A modern autobiography is actually an oxymoron. Autobiographical information abounds in European and Islamic medieval literature, but it tends to occur in texts accidentally or implicitly. When it is presented as a coherent narrative, the focus is not on the narrator himself but, for instance, on the manifestation of God’s will. In the classical Arabic literary genre of ṭabaqāt, bio-bibliographical dictionaries, the author often includes his own biography, tarjama, at the alphabetical or chronological place where it belongs. It generally follows the normative patterns of all the others in that particular work, and its purpose is to supply all the relevant information relevant for the purpose of the study. A late but typical example is to be found in ‘Ali Pasha Mubarak’s geographical work on Egypt, where his own biography appears under the entry Birinbal, his own birthplace, simply to offer all the information worth knowing about the village.⁶³ The autobiography proper is a modern phenomenon, and it presupposes a radically new worldview that positions the self as a reasonable, responsible being at the center of events and in possession of his own history. A sense has to develop for what Franz Rosenthal calls the awareness of the intrinsic value of the uniquely personal.⁶⁴ Or, as a more recent formulation states, the curiosity of the individual about himself, the wonder he feels before the mystery of his own destiny, is thus tied up with the Copernican revolution.⁶⁵ Two formal characteristics of the autobiography follow from this self-awareness: the author, the narrator, and the main subject of the narrative are the same; and the structure of the narrative will almost always be chronological.⁶⁶

A precursor of the autobiography in Arabic is Muntakhabāt al-jawāb ‘ala ‘qtirāḥ al-aḥbāb by Mikha’il Mishaqa,⁶⁷ a contemporary of ‘Ali Pasha Mubarak. Mishaqa’s own life is not the main topic of his book, but he does attempt to link the fate of his family and his own development in a meaningful causal relationship to the events of his time. When Zaidan wrote a full-fledged autobiography in 1908, he knew of Mishaqa and his work. Though Zaidan was a pioneer in the genre of autobiography, he hardly can be called the founder of autobiographical writing in Arabic. Selected parts of his autobiography were published in al-Hilal during 1954.⁶⁸ The full manuscript was not published until 1968, when Taha Husayn had already influenced a whole generation of autobiographical writings with his Ayyam, published in 1926.⁶⁹

The immediate impetus for Zaidan’s decision to write his autobiography was perhaps his son Emile’s departure in 1908 to study at the Syrian Protestant College in Beirut,⁷⁰ the very place where Zaidan père had started his own studies some thirty years earlier The autobiography covers the first twenty-two years of Zaidan’s life, breaking off in the middle of a sentence; we know of no reason why he did not return to it. Nevertheless, as far as it goes, it is a real autobiography in the modern sense of the term and thus differs radically even from Mishaqa’s work.

Zaidan was born in Beirut on 14 December 1861. Beirut found itself in a century-long growth trend that expanded its population from 6,000 inhabitants in 1820 to 150,000 in 1905. It belonged, with Alexandria, Haifa, Mersin, Izmir (Smyrna), Trieste, and Odessa, to those Mediterranean cities that grew in the nineteenth century from villages or small towns to trading ports with several hundred thousand inhabitants. They were part of the European-dominated world economic system, opening up inland markets to European goods and supplying Europe with raw materials such as cotton, tobacco, silk, grain, leather, and so on. In 1861 Beirut was just emerging from twenty years of sectarian unrest in Lebanon and Syria, which climaxed in the 1860 massacre of Christians in Damascus during which some 5,000 were killed. The European powers had taken an active part in the sectarian unrest. The French had supported the Maronites and the British, the Druze. French troops had landed in Beirut following the massacre in Damascus and, just a few months before Zaidan was born, a new political order was established that made Mount Lebanon an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire.

The Zaidan family had fled the unrest in Mount Lebanon, moving to Beirut just as the first outbursts of violence erupted in the 1840s. They were not alone. Future close friends had experienced a similar fate. In 1860 Faris Nimr’s mother had fled with her son to Jerusalem after his father was killed during the unrest. Later they moved to Beirut. The family of Shahin Makarius also fled in 1860 to Beirut. Ya‘qub Sarruf,⁷¹ however, did not come as a refugee. In 1866 he applied to the Syrian Protestant College as a regular student.⁷² With the influx of refugees from the fighting in Mount Lebanon, the population of Beirut roughly doubled between the early 1850s and mid-1860s to about 60,000 inhabitants.⁷³ The post-war period from 1860 to the creation of the provincial capital of Beirut in 1888 was a foundational moment in Beirut’s history in which local notables, merchants, and public moralists joined forces in an attempt to formulate a modern vision for Beirut.⁷⁴

Those were the years of Zaidan’s childhood and youth described in his autobiography. He provides the details of the modest circumstances of his family, the small and frequently changed apartments, and his mother’s attempts to add to the family income by baking bread for others while his father was running various eateries. The boy Jurji was required to work in them, and he obtained a close-up view of the lower classes. He hated his smelly job, the vulgarity of the customers and the storytellers. His environment is not, however, the real focus of his narrative. The main theme remains the emotional and intellectual growth of the boy, a process convincingly described from his own point of view. In his search for role models, for instance, Jurji first looked to the ruffians and young toughs who hung out at his father’s eatery. But soon he had to admit to the discomfort he felt in their company. Try as he might, he was not cut out to be a tough guy. Formal education was provided by an ignorant priest who made his pupils learn psalms by heart without any understanding of the text. The application of a collection of different-sized sticks established the priest’s authority in class. The limits of this sort of education were quickly reached, and Jurji’s parents attempted to launch him in a career as a shoemaker. It was a reflection upon the changing times that they insisted he should become a shoemaker for European shoes. This apprenticeship did not work out, and he was sent to a shopkeeper as bookkeeper and manager—without success. It was only when he had made the acquaintance of students and members of the new intelligentsia in Beirut that he felt he had found himself. Then he could admit his distaste for the bad manners, boorishness, and vulgarity that seemed the norm in his own social surroundings. The boy’s intellectual gifts and his hunger for knowledge had been disregarded by his father, who believed that any education beyond reading, writing, and basic arithmetic was a waste of time. Only Jurji’s mother, of whom he always spoke with tenderness, had recognized his potential and tried to steer him away from working in his father’s restaurant. In the end it was the boy himself who found the channels through which he could direct his intellectual curiosity and drive, and finally he was accepted as a medical student at the Syrian Protestant College.

Zaidan was an autodidact. He had no formal training in Arabic language and literature, not to speak of the canon of Koranic studies and its ancillary sciences. His first encounter with education was the school of the neighborhood priest, of which he only remembered the threat of being beaten and the mindless recitation by heart of psalms. After graduating from this school, he was sent to a school set up by refugees from Damascus after 1861, where he was to learn the basics of writing and arithmetic, so as to be able to write a name [of a client] and put next to it what he owed.⁷⁵ The principal of the school was a self-taught mason who nevertheless was able to awaken Zaidan’s interest in learning. After the school was closed down he continued in a new school founded by the former principal. When he was eleven his father took him out of this school, apparently feeling that he had learned enough for the keeping of accounts and the running of the eatery. Four years passed in this environment during which I did not read a book and did not learn a word until I forgot what I had learned in the school.⁷⁶ Only when he made friends with some students of the new missionary schools and was accepted into their circle did he begin