Management Accounting Demystified

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

DEMYSTIFIED

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING DEMYSTIFIED

LEONARD EUGENE BERRY,

PhD, CIA

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DOI: 10.1036/0071459618

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To Rebecca for her encouragement all through this

project and for reading the manuscript and checking

all those computations.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Leonard Eugene Berry, PhD, CIA, is Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus in the School of Accountancy, Georgia State University. He is a retired CPA in the State of Georgia.

CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

CHAPTER 1 What Is Management Accounting?

CHAPTER 2 Basic Cost Terms and Concepts

CHAPTER 3 Job Order Cost Systems

CHAPTER 4 Cost Allocation Systems

CHAPTER 5 Process Cost Systems

CHAPTER 6 Activity-Based Management Systems

CHAPTER 7 Costs for Decision Making: Cost Estimation and Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis

CHAPTER 8 Costs for Decision Making: Relevant Costing and Capital Expenditure Analysis

CHAPTER 9 Costs for Decision Making: Setting Prices

CHAPTER 10 Profit Planning Using Master Budgets

CHAPTER 11 Planning and Performance Evaluation: Using Flexible Budgets

CHAPTER 12 Performance Evaluation: Standard Costing and Variances Analysis

CHAPTER 13 Performance Evaluation: Sales Variances and the Balanced Scorecard

CHAPTER 14 Performance Evaluation in Decentralized Companies

Final Exam

Glossary

Index

CONTENTS

Introduction

CHAPTER 1 What Is Management Accounting?

Information for Decision Making

Strategic Analysis Information

Planning Information

Organizing and Directing Information

Performance Evaluation Information

The Key Accounting and Finance Players in a Large Business

Changing Roles of the Controller and Management Accountant

The Profession of Accounting

Management Accounting Compared to Financial Accounting

Summary

CHAPTER 2 Basic Cost Terms and Concepts

Cost as an Asset or Expense

Costs That Become Assets

Costs That Become Expenses

Identification of Costs and Expenses in Three Types of Businesses

Tracing Costs to Cost Objects

Cost Objects

Direct Costs

Indirect Costs

Costs Based on Cost Behavior

Total Variable Costs

Relevant Range

Total Fixed Costs

Mixed Variable Costs

Stepped Fixed Costs

Unit vs. Total Costs

Cost Definitions for Decision Making

Summary of Cost Definitions

Cost Flows in a Manufacturing Business

Preparation of Financial Statements

The Balance Sheet

The Income Statement

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 3 Job Order Cost Systems

Factors in Designing a Cost System

Job Order Cost System

The Accounting Components of a Job Order Costing System

Source Documents Used in the System

The General Ledger and Subsidiary Ledgers

The Major Steps in Designing a Job Order Cost System

Disposition of Overallocated or Underallocated Overhead

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 4 Cost Allocation Systems

Why Allocate Indirect Costs?

Nature of Cost Allocation

Issues to Address in Cost Allocation

An Overview of Cost Flows in a Manufacturing Cost Allocation System

Methods of Allocating Support Department Costs

Direct Method

Step-Down Method

Other Methods for Allocating Support Department Overhead

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 5 Process Cost Systems

Process Costing and Job Order Costing Compared

A Description of Process Costing

Concept of Equivalent Units

An Overview of the Major Steps in a Process Cost System

A Visual Look at Computing Unit Costs Under the Weighted Average Method and the FIFO Method

Weighted Average Method

FIFO Method

Assigning Costs Using the Weighted Average Method

Assigning Costs Using the FIFO Method

Costs Transferred in from Other Departments

Transferred-In Costs Using the Weighted Average Method

Transferred-In Costs Using the FIFO Method

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 6 Activity-Based Management Systems

Activity-Based Management Systems

ABC as a Management System

ABC in Product Costing

An Overview of the Flow of Costs in an ABM System

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 7 Costs for Decision Making: Cost Estimation and Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis

Why Cost Behavior and Cost Estimation Is So Important

Review of Cost Behavioral Terms

The Basic Linear Cost Function

Assumptions Underlying the Linear Cost Model

Methods for Estimating Variable and Fixed Costs

The Account Analysis Method

Industrial Engineering Method

Scatter Diagram Method

The High-Low Method

Regression Analysis

Putting It All Together—The Steps in Developing a Cost Estimation or Prediction Formula

Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis (CVP) and Its Uses

The CVP Model

Total Costs vs. Unit Costs

Contribution Margin Approach in CVP Analysis

The Formula Approach in CVP Analysis

Shortcut Approaches to CVP Analysis

CVP Analysis and the Multiproduct Firm

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 8 Costs for Decision Making: Relevant Costing and Capital Expenditure Analysis

Decision Making Model

Important Accounting Concepts for Decision Making

Hazards in Using Relevant Costing

Problem: Should a Product, Service, or Business Segment Be Dropped?

Problem: How to Make Capital Investment Decisions

The Payback Method of Evaluating Capital Investment Projects

The Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Method of Evaluating Capital Investment Projects

Problem: Should a Product or Service Be Produced Internally or Outsourced?

Problem: Which Product Mix Provides the Greater Profitability?

Summary

Appendix: Computing Present Value of a Lump Sum of Money

The Present Value of Money

Computing the Present Value of Money

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 9 Costs for Decision Making: Setting Prices

Economics of Pricing

Short-Term Pricing Decisions

Long-Term Pricing Decisions

Cost-Plus Pricing

Contribution Margin Approach to Pricing

Target Costing

The Basic Concepts of Target Costing

Steps in Computing the Target Cost

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 10 Profit Planning Using Master Budgets

Purposes and Benefits of Profit Planning

The Behavioral Aspects of Profit Planning and Budgeting

Budgeting Obstacles

The Master Budget Framework

Steps in Preparing the Master Budget

Budget Gap

Activity-Based Budgeting

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 11 Planning and Performance Evaluation: Using Flexible Budgets

Flexible Budgets for Planning

Flexible Budgets for Activities and Planning of Overhead Costs

General Model for Evaluating Financial Performance

Flexible Budgets for Control

Flexible Budgeting in Action

Illustration of Flexible Budget for Control at the Senior Management Level

Determining the Cause of Flexible Budget Variances

Activity-Based Flexible Budgeting and Variance Analysis

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 12 Performance Evaluation: Standard Costing and Variances Analysis

What Is a Standard?

Ideal Standards

Practical Standards

Advantages of Standard Costing

Criticisms of Standard Costing

Standard Costing in Performance Evaluation

Who Is Responsible for Setting Standards?

Purchasing

Industrial Engineering

Human Resources

Management Accountant

Using Standard Costing in Material and Labor Cost Variance Analysis

Causes of Direct Material and Direct Labor Variances

Variable Manufacturing Overhead Variances

Explanation and Causes of Variable Manufacturing Overhead Variances

Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Variances

Explanation and Causes of Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Variances

Different Approaches for Analyzing Manufacturing

Cost Variances in the General Ledger

Disposition of Cost Variances

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 13 Performance Evaluation: Sales Variances and the Balanced Scorecard

Sales Variances

Total Sales Budget Variance

Sales Price Variance

Sales Volume Variance

Sales Mix Variance

Sales Quantity Variance

Sales Market Share Variance

Sales Market Size Variance

Evaluating the Success of a Strategic Initiative

Balancing Financial and Nonfinancial Success Factors

Some Guidelines for Adopting the Balanced Scorecard

Measuring the Key Success Areas

Vision and Strategy

Learning and Innovation

Learning and Innovation Measures of Performance

Internal Business Processes

Internal Business Process Performance Measures

Customer Focus

Customer Performance Measures

Financial Performance

Financial Performance Measures

Six Sigma and the Balanced Scorecard

Six Sigma in Action

Performance Dashboard

Benchmarking

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

CHAPTER 14 Performance Evaluation in Decentralized Companies

Nature of Decentralization

Advantages of Decentralization

Disadvantages of Decentralization

Responsibility Accounting System

The Issue of Controllability

Managerial Evaluation Compared to Segment Evaluation

Responsibility Centers

Measuring Investment Center (Divisional) Performance

Return on Investment (ROI)

Residual Income (RI)

Economic Value Added (EVA)

Measuring Income and the Investment Base

How Is Income Measured?

What Is Included in the Investment Base?

How Is the Investment Base Valued?

Activity-Based Costing and Responsibility Accounting

Transfer Pricing

Transfer Pricing When There Is No External Market

Transfer Pricing When There Is an External Market

Transfer Pricing When the Producing Division Has Excess Capacity

Transfer Pricing When the Producing Division Can Use Idle Facilities for Other Purposes

Transfer Pricing When Producing Division Has No Excess Capacity

Transfer Pricing in a Multinational Environment

A Synthesis of Performance Evaluation Methodologies

Summary

Practice Problems

Solutions to Practice Problems

Final Exam

Glossary

Index

INTRODUCTION

Management accounting is where the action is in the field of accounting. It is located at the intersection of where accounting information meets decision making. Management needs the right kind of information to make decisions and management accounting must be able to provide that information in a relevant and timely form.

What kinds of decisions do business managers make? They include decisions such as planning the future course of the business, pricing products or services so as to cover costs and make a profit, planning and allocating capital resources, acquiring and evaluating human resources, and evaluating the business segments and its managers. To be effective, the management accountant must not only have a good understanding of accounting but a have a basic understanding of the principles of management, human behavior, and basic microeconomics. Likewise, the manager must have a basic understanding of management accounting in order to use the information effectively: its origins, its strengths and weaknesses, and its terminology and procedures.

Thus, this book is written to be useful to both managers and management accountants. Specifically, it is designed to be most useful to:

• Managers who have little or no knowledge of management accounting or who once had a good knowledge but need a review.

• Accountants who need:

• A review of the fundamental concepts and procedures of management accounting as a refresher course or to study for a professional examination.

• An understanding of the basics for an entry-level position in management accounting.

• Students who do not have a basic knowledge of management accounting or who need help in preparing for a test to improve their performance. This book could be useful as a supplement to an MBA casebook or as a way of reviewing the basics when using a more difficult book on management accounting.

As the title implies, this book is written to take the mystery out of management accounting. It is written to provide the major accounting concepts and procedures in a concise form. Often in a bullet format, key terms, concepts, and procedures are always identified in bold type. Each term and concept is followed by examples and each procedure is followed by a problem illustration with solutions, where applicable. With the exception of Chapter 1, each chapter ends with additional practice problems and solutions. At the end of the book there is a comprehensive final examination covering the major concepts and procedures in the book.

If you have taken a course in management accounting before and think you know the material in any of the chapters, answer all questions and problems at the end of the chapter as a pretest. If you can answer all questions correctly, then you can probably skip that chapter. But it could be valuable to review the concepts and procedures anyway.

When studying a specific subject, you should spend as much time on a topic as is necessary to master it. Always answer the questions and problems after each section, and make sure you answer them before you look at the answers! When you finish a chapter, answer all questions and work on all problems. If you can answer at least 90 percent of them, then you can assume that you have successfully learned the material. Always spend more time reviewing the chapter material pertaining to the questions or problems that you missed.

The author would appreciate receiving e-mail regarding any errors in the book or any suggestions for improvement. Please send them to [email protected].

Thanks and good luck!

CHAPTER 1

What Is Management Accounting?

Information for Decision Making

Every day, all around the world, managers in companies of all sizes make important decisions that will affect the ultimate success of their businesses. Often these managers look to the management accountant to provide the necessary information they need to make these decisions. The decisions managers are faced with relate to the following categories:

Strategic Analysis Information

Strategy involves scanning the business environment (potential markets, customers, products/services, and competitors) for opportunities and making decisions relating to:

• What kind of business should the company engage in?

• What products or services should the company produce and/or sell?

• What markets should the company compete in?

• Should the company merge or acquire another company?

• How much should be spent on research and development over the long run?

• What capital assets should be acquired and how will they be financed?

Strategic analysis involves developing measures and a feedback system to evaluate the success of the strategies developed by the company.

The management accountant assists management in setting strategic planning and analysis by giving input on projected sales and costs of various strategic opportunities, creating benchmarks to evaluate strategies, assisting on due diligence of various strategic alternatives, and providing input on the effectiveness of business policies.

Planning Information

Planning involves long- and short-term decisions about the future course of the business.

• Long-term planning involves developing the broad steps to achieve the business's strategic growth goals. Long-term planning and strategic planning are very closely linked and may be used interchangeably. The long-range planning process involves deciding on such things as what capital assets and human resources are required to meet the strategic goals of the company; how these resources will be financed; and what processes will be employed to meet the customers' satisfaction effectively and efficiently.

• Short-term planning involves breaking down the long-range plans into smaller steps for the coming year or the coming quarter. This will require such decisions as setting prices for the coming year, estimating costs, and preparing a master budget. Management accountants assist management in planning by providing analysis of long-term investments, financial projections for long-term budgets, and master budgets for the coming period.

Organizing and Directing Information

To implement plans and operations, management must be organized to achieve the business goals effectively and efficiently. This involves such things as dividing responsibilities, creating an organization structure, and setting up an information system that provides information for all parts of the organization. In addition, management must oversee continuing operations, and keep the organization running smoothly. This requires motivating, directing, and communicating with all personnel within the organization. In a word, it has to do with leadership by top and middle managers.

The management accountant assists management in organizing and directing by providing input on organizational structure, information systems, internal controls, and compensation plans that motivate managers to achieve company goals.

Performance Evaluation Information

Evaluating Business Unit Performance

Each major business unit should be evaluated to determine whether it is competing effectively in the market to which it has been assigned. This evaluation involves:

• Using business unit financial reports to evaluate current operations; that is, is that unit profitable?

• Assessing whether a business unit is making a satisfactory return on investment.

• Deciding whether the business should close a business unit; for example, should Bank of America close a branch?

Evaluating Managers' Performance

Managerial evaluation involves evaluating the personal performance of a segment manager, rather than evaluating the unit itself. Evaluating the manager involves:

• Reviewing cost reports or budget reports to determine whether the manager met the assigned budget.

• Using specialized reporting to evaluate the manager's effectiveness in carrying out the strategy goals. Typical reports involve special measurement techniques such as Balanced Score Card, Return on Investment, Residual Income, and Economic Value Added (EVA) discussed in Chapter 14.

• Developing information to structure compensation plans.

The management accountant's role in organizational and management evaluation is critical since he or she will provide the key measures of performance, financial reports of responsibility center performance, reports of variance from budgets and standards, and other key pieces of information that help evaluate the success of the business.

The Key Accounting and Finance Players in a Large Business

Who provides the information for making the major decisions discussed above? The key players who are responsible for this role are:

• The Chief Financial Officer (CFO), the senior executive who is responsible for all the financing and accounting functions of the business.

• The Controller, the chief accounting officer of the business responsible for all accounting functions in the corporation. The Controller normally reports to the CFO. In some businesses, the title Comptroller is used instead of Controller. When used in a corporation, it has the same meaning as Controller. The information generated by the Controller includes financial information for both internal managers and external users of financial statements. Persons providing the information for internal users making the decisions discussed in the previous section, and who report to the Controller, are known as management accountants.

• The Treasurer, responsible for cash and other financial resources of the company, such as maintaining bank relations, managing investments, handling cash receipts and similar operations. The Treasurer normally reports to the CFO.

• The Internal Auditor, who performs financial, compliance, and management audits for internal management. The InternalAuditor provides independent appraisal of the organization's internal control system. Often, the Internal Auditor performs consulting services to internal management, and can report to the board of directors, the CEO, or the CFO, depending on the policy set by the board of directors or the CEO. The Internal Auditor may be a CPA and/or a Certified Internal Auditor (CIA). To be certified, candidates must pass a written examination, possess a specified level of experience, and hold a college degree. A CIA is certified by the Institute of Internal Auditors.

Changing Roles of the Controller and Management Accountant

The roles of the Controller and the management accountant have changed dramatically during the past decade. The Controller and modern management accountants go beyond the role of just providing the numbers for management, often becoming directly involved in the decision making process as consultants to management. Moreover, many Controllers are adding value to their function by developing a partnership role with operating management. The notion of adding value means taking the perspective of the customer—the users of Controller services—and providing innovative products and services that incorporate but go beyond traditional transaction processing, financial reporting, and control. Further, Controllers add value by being members of the business leadership team. By sitting at the table where strategic and tactical decisions are made, a Controller provides an important contribution and perspective in shaping corporate decisions and positively influencing their outcomes.

All of this means that the management accountants of the future must include in their skills not only traditional areas of accounting but microeconomics, management, and finance as well. The modern management accountant will be more of a consultant than a mere scorekeeper. This means that accountants may be able to finally shed the green eye shade persona that has always been attributed to their role in the corporation.

What Does certified Mean Anyway?

The term certified means that an individual has met a minimum of education and experience requirements set by a government entity or professional organization, has passed a rigorous examination, and agreed to follow a set of established standards and body of ethics. Only the CPA is licensed by a state to independently attest to a company's financial statements. There are also Certified Management Accountants (CMA) and Certified Internal Auditors (CIA). The CMA is certified by the Institute of Management Accounting and the CIA is certified by the Institute of Internal Auditors. The certification by these two latter groups simply means that these individuals have met minimum education requirements and have passed a rigorous examination.

The Profession of Accounting

There are several types of accountants who specialize in the various subfields of accounting. The most familiar of these is the Certified Public Accountant (CPA), who is often referred to as an external auditor (that is, external to the business). (See the sidebar for more information on certification.) There are also internal accountants, tax accountants, internal auditors, and governmental accountants.

A Certified Management Accountant (CMA) is granted a certificate from the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) after passing a rigorous four-part examination and meeting practical experience requirements. A CMA generally provides services directly to an employer rather than to the public. This book is directed primarily toward management accountants who work internally for a business. To be employed as a management accountant, one does not have to be certified. However, many are certified as CMAs or CPAs to attest to their education and experience in accounting and to enhance their professional status. The sidebar contains more information on what it means to be certified.

While the management accountant does not have to be certified, he or she must have a sound knowledge of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). As stated above, since many management accountants act as consultants to management, they should have a good knowledge of behavioral science, management techniques, and microeconomics. This book does not cover these topics, except as they relate to the management accountant's role and to practice problem situations.

Management Accounting Compared to Financial Accounting

Accounting in a business is often divided into management accounting and financial accounting. The following is a brief comparison of the two.

Financial accounting has the following characteristics:

• It is primarily for external users of the corporation such as stockholders, prospective investors, lending institutions, and regulatory agencies.

• It must follow GAAP set by the Financial Accounting Standards Board and the regulatory requirements of the Securities and Exchange Commission, and may be influenced by professional organizations such as the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.

• Its numbers are historical in nature and may contain estimates.

• Its numbers are primarily monetary.

• Its reporting entity is usually the entire corporation.

• Its reporting frequency is usually quarterly and annually.

Management Accounting has the following characteristics:

• Its primary role is to provide information and advice to internal managers in order to assist them in their management responsibilities.

• It may or may not use GAAP in the preparation of its information, depending on the purpose of this information. Management techniques, human behavioral considerations, and economics heavily influence the preparation of accounting information for management decision making. Thus, the management accountant must have a good knowledge of economics, behavioral science, statistics, and management.

• It may be historical in nature but usually is future oriented, as in the preparation of a budget.

• It may have a monetary focus but other nonmonetary metrics may be used. Some examples of nonmonetary metrics are number of customer complaints, market share of a business, and setup time in a manufacturing operation.

• Its reporting entities are usually responsibility centers such as business units, profit centers, and cost centers.

• Its reporting frequency is as needed but in some cases it can be on a specified cycle: daily, weekly, monthly, or annually. Examples of the latter are cost reports and business unit financial reports.

Summary

Today's management accountant has an exciting role of contributing to the success of a business. This new role must not only perform the traditional function of providing the numbers for financial statements and management reports, but must also involve the development and distribution of information to key managers for strategic decision making, planning, and evaluation and control of the business.

The management accountant will likely become more actively involved in the design of information systems that can effectively provide needed decision making support. The management accountant will become a more valuable member of the business team.