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    Eccentricity in Anthropology: David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate
    Eccentricity in Anthropology: David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate
    Eccentricity in Anthropology: David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate
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    Eccentricity in Anthropology: David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate

    By Stephen R. Milford

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    Eccentricity in Anthropology brings into conversation a constructive, critical interpretation of David Kelsey's Eccentric Existence with a central--yet often overlooked--debate in theological anthropology: the substantive-relational imago Dei. Milford's work explores new insights into human identity and dignity. In particular he demonstrates the value of an alternate constructive of humanity in the image of God. This construction utilizes an interpretation of Kelsey's anthropological formula so as to describe human identity as part of the created order in terms of its myriad features, which are externally rooted.

    Eccentricity in Anthropology demonstrates that an alternate approach to this debate is possible, and that one can combine important aspects of both substantive and relational thinking. As such, Milford's work is an important contribution to studies in the doctrine of the imago Dei. Taking Eccentric Existence's invitation to act as a springboard for further debate seriously, it presents one possible fruitful use of Kelsey's work to address theological anthropological questions. In a very real sense, this book is both a discussion in systematic theology and at the same time a work in contemporary historical theology.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherPickwick Publications
    Release dateJun 7, 2019
    ISBN9781532660924
    Eccentricity in Anthropology: David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate
    Author

    Stephen R. Milford

    Stephen Milford is an accredited minister with the Baptist Union of Great Britian. He obtained his master’s degrees from Trinity College Dublin and Oxford University. He spent two years reading at King’s College London before completing his PhD with the Protestant Theological University in the Netherlands. He is currently an Extraordinary Researcher in the Faculty of Theology at North-West University, South Africa. He resides in Oxford with his wife and daughters.

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      Book preview

      Eccentricity in Anthropology - Stephen R. Milford

      Eccentricity in Anthropology

      David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate

      Stephen R. Milford

      26117.png

      Eccentricity in Anthropology

      David H. Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate

      Princeton Theological Monograph Series

      238

      Copyright ©

      2019

      Stephen R. Milford. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers,

      199

      W.

      8

      th Ave., Suite

      3

      , Eugene, OR

      97401

      .

      Pickwick Publications

      An Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers

      199

      W.

      8

      th Ave., Suite

      3

      Eugene, OR

      97401

      www.wipfandstock.com

      paperback isbn: 978-1-5326-6090-0

      hardcover isbn: 978-1-5326-6091-7

      ebook isbn: 978-1-5326-6092-4

      Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

      Names: Milford, Stephen R., author.

      Title: Eccentricity in anthropology : David H. Kelsey’s anthropological formula as a way out of the substantive-relational imago dei debate / by Stephen R. Milford.

      Description: Eugene, OR : Pickwick Publications,

      2019

      | Princeton Theological Monograph Series

      238

      | Includes bibliographical references.

      Identifiers:

      isbn 978-1-5326-6090-0 (

      paperback

      ) | isbn 978-1-5326-6091-7 (

      hardcover

      ) | isbn 978-1-5326-6092-4 (

      ebook

      )

      Subjects: LCSH: Theological anthropology—Christianity. | Kelsey, David H.,—1937–. | Kelsey, David H.—Eccentric existence.

      Classification:

      bt701.3 .m55 2019 (

      print

      ) | bt701.3 .m55 (

      ebook

      )

      Manufactured in the U.S.A.

      06/06/19

      Table of Contents

      Title Page

      Acknowledgments

      Introduction

      Chapter 1: A Genuine Choice?

      The Substantive Scheme

      The Relational Scheme

      Common Limitations

      One Question, One Answer

      Chapter 2: Kelsey’s Postliberal Heritage

      Three Postliberal Giants

      A Postliberal Family Resemblance

      Postliberalism, Truth and Kelsey’s Project

      Chapter 3: Buoys for Eccentric Existence

      Sketching the Landscape

      Eccentric Existence and the Imago Dei

      Chapter 4: An Anthropological Formula

      Defining ‘Formula’

      The Formulaic Elements

      The Structure of the Formula

      The Application of the Formula

      Strategy for Analyzing the Formula

      Chapter 5: Basic and Quotidian Identity

      Identity: Enduring and Dynamic

      Identity and Eccentric Existence

      Narrative Identity?

      The Gift and Vocation of Human Identity

      Chapter 6: Personal Identity

      The Challenge of Persons

      Personal Identities, Not Identities of Persons

      A Trinitarian Anthropological Influence

      Creating Personal Identities in EE

      The Personal Imago Dei

      Chapter 7: Unsubstitutable Identity

      The Challenge of Particularity

      Unsubstitutable Individuality

      Imago Dei as God’s Beloved

      Basic Unsubstitutable Personal Identities

      Chapter 8: Human Actuality

      Possible, Potential and Actual Human Beings

      Aristotle and Actuality

      Elaborating on Human Actuality

      Chapter 9: Living Human Body

      The Driving Force

      The Challenge to Human Embodiment: Resurrected Persons

      A Third Proposal

      The Eschatological Continuity Question

      The Imago Dei as Non-dualistic Non-materialistic Living Human Body

      Conclusion

      What Is Offered

      Kelsey and the Limitations of the Substantive-Relational Debate

      A New Approach to the Imago Dei?

      Bibliography

      Princeton Theological Monograph Series

      K. C. Hanson, Charles M. Collier, D. Christopher Spinks, and Robin A. Parry, Series Editors

      Recent volumes in the series:

      Nico Vorster

      The Brightest Mirror of God’s Works: John Calvin’s Theological Anthropology

      Silje Kvamme Bjørndal

      The Church in a Secular Age: A Pneumatological 
Reconstruction of Stanley Hauerwas’s Ecclesiology

      Jeff McSwain

      Simul Sanctification: Barth’s Hidden Vision 
for Human Transformation

      Steven Underdown

      Living in the Eighth Day: The Christian Week 
and the Paschal Mystery

      Jeffery L. Hamm

      Turning the Tables on Apologetics: Helmut Thielicke’s 
Reformation of Christian Conversation

      Riyako Cecilia Hikota

      And Still We Wait: Hans Urs von Balthasar’s Theology 
of Holy Saturday and Christian Discipleship

      Guillaume Bignon

      Excusing Sinners and Blaming God: A Calvinist Assessment of 
Determinism, Moral Responsibility, and Divine Involvement in Evil

      Jeff McDonald

      John Gerstner and the Renewal of Presbyterian and 
Reformed Evangelicalism in Modern America

      For Aoife

      Acknowledgments

      It is true that the completion of a project of this nature is a long, lonely task defined by many hours of sitting in dusty libraries or in isolated contemplation. Nevertheless, the task cannot be completed without a great deal of support. As such, while the award may be individual, the accomplishment is corporate. I would therefore like to thank all those who have provided this much needed support over many years. Beyond the obvious divine intervention, the fact being so blatantly obvious it requires little mention, I wish to acknowledge the human. Credit must be given to the numerous people who have helped and encouraged me along the way: friends and fellow congregants. For example, Chris Brown for the PhD cover design. Even complete strangers were kind enough to help wherever possible. In particular Dr. Ariaan Baan, who freely gave his time for the Dutch translation of the summary.

      Unsurprisingly, my family has been incredibly supportive. First and foremost, I note my parents who believed it was in me before I could see it in myself. Not only did they constantly encourage me to pursue this dream, but they often provided the financial means necessary. Their generosity has not gone unnoticed. Alongside my parents has been the constant, steadfast support of my wife. Although I had many moments of doubt, never for an instant did she display misgivings that I was capable of finishing this marathon. Often, I would wonder if she truly understood my limitations. On completion it is I who wonders whether I truly understood them myself.

      Finally, I must thank my supervisors. The encouragement of Prof. dr. Benno van den Toren to join him at the Protestant Theological University is a key reason for the completion of this project. Although initially I had questions about studying in another country at a little-known institution (I confess my own ignorance here), my trust in Prof van den Toren was well placed and he has been an exceptional supervisor. His skill and dedication have been matched by Prof. dr. Rinse Reeling Brouwer who has provided invaluable insight. I cannot thank them both enough. They have supported me most excellently through every aspect of this project. As such, whatever failings exist this work are mine entirely.

      Introduction

      ‘Who am I?,’ ‘What am I?,’ and ‘How ought I to be?’ are anthropological questions burning in the heart of every human being. For the Christian, the answer is often given in the form of two seemingly simple words: imago Dei. Over the last 2,000 years, numerous answers have been suggested as to what this enigmatic phrase actually means. Yet, as Douglas Hall eloquently states:

      Not everything that could be said about this symbol has been said . . . this startling expression of the first chapter of Genesis defies and transcends all of its historic explanations. It points toward a mystery of human identity that must be rediscovered by each generation of the believing community and worked out with regard to the specific problems and possibilities confronting that generation.¹

      In 2009, the Yale theologian David Kelsey offered this generation profound answers to anthropological questions raised by the Christian doctrine of the imago Dei. His proposals appear in a mammoth 1,051-page, two-volume project entitled Eccentric Existence (EE), a project that has been met with critical acclaim:

      This book will (or could and should) re-define theological anthropology for the next generation.²

      Without doubt, David Kelsey’s Eccentric Existence: A Theological Anthropology (henceforth, EE) is one of the most significant and important contributions to the field of theology from this generation of theologians. . . . It is difficult to think of any comparable work in any area of theology in terms of both depth and scope in recent years; it is also difficult to think of any single work on theological anthropology throughout the history of Christian thought which engages with the singular topic so thoroughly and comprehensively. I cannot imagine any subsequent book on this topic which would not engage in detail with Kelsey’s work, and this is surely testimony to its significance. . . . It is surely now the standard primary text on theological anthropology.³

      David Kelsey’s Eccentric Existence: A Theological Anthropology is an astonishing achievement. It is a feast of high quality thinking that requires a good deal of chewing but rewards with theological nourishment that is hard to equal in recent Christian thought. . . . [It] deserves to become a benchmark by which to assess contributions to theological anthropology for many years to come.⁴

      The comments made in the quotations directly above are proving to be accurate as theologians take their time to digest EE. Indeed, we are starting to see secondary works that engage extensively with EE. For example, Gene Outka has recently edited a collection of responses to Kelsey’s work.⁵ These responses engage with Kelsey on topics as broad as ecclesiology, hamartiology, theological education and ecumenical dialogues. This is unsurprising considering that EE is immense in length and scope, so much so that John Thiel has termed it a theological tour de force that defies categorization,⁶ while Charles Wood notes it is at times a challenge to the reader’s powers of endurance.⁷ It is highly complex, multifaceted, intricate and idiosyncratic. Consider, for example, C. A. Morgan’s experience of it:

      I find it difficult to engage Kelsey’s argument on a single proposal. Each proposal is inseparable from the tightly woven fabric of the whole. The strength of this, of course, is that Kelsey shows the real complexity of the logic of Christian belief. However, his language is so precise and the distinctions so idiosyncratic to his own thinking (e.g., his typologies) that it is difficult to paraphrase him without misrepresenting him, or to adopt a proposed revision without engaging the entire work.⁸

      So important do theologians deem EE, that the peer-reviewed journal Modern Theology devoted its entire January 2011 edition to a symposium in its honor. This is only fitting considering the significance of Kelsey’s project. He completed EE in his retirement, marking the culmination of a long and distinguished career by a leading theologian. It offers creative, unique and intriguing proposals that often go beyond binary debates such as conservative/liberal or pre-modern/modern (12).⁹ Throughout our project, we see that EE presents us with a new way of doing theology; it is systematic and yet unsystematic (108–9), methodologically rich and yet free flowing,¹⁰ focused and yet making allowances for extended in-depth discussions. An argument can be made that it is an important example of what a postliberal theology offers to the field of theological anthropology, going beyond mere discussions of the distinctiveness of postliberal methodology to its actual theologizing.¹¹

      These factors—its wide critical acclaim, its creativity, and its sophistication—justify our project, one that engages primarily with the proposals put forward by EE. This is not the first project to do so¹² and, in all likelihood, not the last.

      Before we begin our discussions, some preliminary remarks must be made regarding our aims and methodology. Morgan’s experience attunes us to two possible dangers when reading EE. The first is to take a single, or limited set of proposals out of the context of the whole. The second is the highly idiosyncratic nature of Kelsey’s proposals that encourages in-depth critical evaluation which risks becoming very complex and lengthy in itself. To avoid both dangers, we must be specific with our objectives so as to select an appropriate topic within EE that takes cognizance of Kelsey’s broader proposals but at the same time is manageable within a single thesis.

      We can look to EE itself to identify just such a topic. Kelsey contends (in his final coda) that his proposals may be held together in a Christological interpretation of the image of God so as to make a whole-in-complexity out of a set of unsystematically related anthropological proposals by providing a framework within which they can be ordered to one another in a single, coherent theocentric picture of human being (896). Focusing our attention on Kelsey’s understanding of a theocentric picture of human beings in the image of God enables us to draw out some key anthropological themes that are on the one hand intertwined with his broader project and on the other hand focused enough to engage with in the space allotted us here.

      The imago Dei cannot be taken without due cognizance of wider Christian discussions. As chapter 1 demonstrates, that wider debate is often presented in the form of two mutually exclusive schemes: the substantive or relational. We see that this debate presents us with a counterfeit choice between these two proposals. Although at first they appear distinct, on closer inspection we see that they make use of a similar approach to the questions surrounding the imago Dei. As a result, they present answers that are similarly shaped and subject to the same limitations. Is it possible that the unique, creative and postliberal approach offered by EE might help us get past these schemes, reshaping not only the answers but the questions themselves?

      If Kelsey is to do this, we need to pay attention to EE’s particular tone of voice (9–10). Kelsey argues that EE seeks to promote and provoke further exploration of the issues and further discussion, rather than assert conversation-stopper pronouncements of what Christians must say on a given topic (10). He goes on to argue that his project is in the hypothetical mode (9). As such, he urges us not to take his proposals uncritically, but to take them as a springboard for further discussion and debate. He encourages us to be active participants in this conversation. Therefore, it is only right that we are both critical and constructive in our engagement with EE. That is, we should be critical in the sense of questioning his proposals in terms of their relation to the biblical witness, other Christian thinkers and their internal coherence and constructive in terms of interpreting and reinterpreting his proposals in light of broader debates on relevant topics.

      When all this is considered, our aim is to constructively and critically evaluate Kelsey’s description of the human being as the image of God in order to take the conversations surrounding the imago Dei beyond the substantive-relational debate. With this in mind, one may read our project in two ways. On the one hand, it can be read as a discussion of systematic theology, that is to say, as part of the debates surrounding the imago Dei and theological anthropology more broadly. On the other hand, it may be read as a work in contemporary historical theology. Its primary dialogue partner is an important theologian of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, whose career has culminated in one of the most significant works of theological anthropology for a generation. Our project is, in many respects, a critical commentary on an important aspect of this theologian’s life work.

      We begin our discussions by critically evaluating the current state of debate within theological anthropology and, in particular, within the doctrine of the imago Dei. Here we demonstrate that the current state involves two opposing mutually exclusive dialogue partners that are so ingrained in our thinking that it is almost impossible to conceive of the imago Dei without appealing to one or the other. Yet, we also demonstrate that their views are based on a common approach and as such open to serious common limitations. Therefore, there arises a need to move past this debate. It is against this backdrop, set out in chapter 1 of our project, that critical comparative conversations between EE and wider sources are played out so as to find a path beyond the substantive-relational schemes.

      Since EE is relatively new to the debate (less than a decade old) and, as has been noted, is highly complex, it is necessary to gain a firm grasp of both its author and its overall content. We dedicate three chapters to this task so as to lay the foundation upon which Kelsey’s description of human beings as the image of God can be evaluated in our project. The first of these three chapters is chapter 2 which evaluates Kelsey’s postliberal heritage, offering insight into the landscape in which EE is orientated. Chapter 3, on the other hand, provides an overview of EE itself so as to familiarize the reader with the broad framework on which Kelsey’s construction of the image of God sits. Here the reader is attuned to EE’s central claim: human beings have their entire being extrinsically rooted. This is the reason our project is entitled Eccentricity in Anthropology.

      In chapter 4, we turn our focus to the core theme of our thesis. In this chapter we demonstrate that Kelsey describes human beings as images of the image of God by making use of an anthropological formula. His argument is that human beings image God simply by being what they are: basic unsubstitutable identities of actual living human personal bodies. Our methodological approach in critically analyzing this formula is to divide it into five sub-terms and dedicate extensive discussions to each term so as to consider its relation to Kelsey’s doctrine of the imago Dei against the backdrop of the substantive-relational debate.¹³

      Chapters 5 to 9 critically and constructively consider each of the sub-terms individually. In these chapters, whenever possible, we focus on one or two important questions or issues applicable to the relevant sub-term. This requires a comparative discussion of theological and philosophical issues raised by the sub-term in question. Following this discussion, we engage in a critical comparative conversation about Kelsey and these broader discussions. In order to treat Kelsey’s proposals properly, we need to engage in detailed analysis of his construction, specific interests, idiosyncrasies and the sources he relies on. This critical comparative conversation between Kelsey and wider theological debates enables us to provide a constructive interpretation of EE’s proposals. As such, chapters 5 to 9 each conclude by bringing our constructive interpretation into dialogue with the substantive-relational debate. In particular, we consider how it is that Kelsey’s proposals offer ways of conceiving of the imago Dei that are hospitable to both substantive and relational concerns and at the same time steer the conversation in new directions.

      We conclude our project by considering the overall implications of our discussions. In that section, we reflect on Kelsey’s eccentric approach in light of the substantive-relational debate, how it addresses concerns held by both sides, how it differs from their constructions and, ultimately, how it refuels and steers the debate toward new understandings of the imago Dei. It is for this reason that we have chosen the subtitle Kelsey’s Anthropological Formula as a Way Out of the Substantive-Relational Imago Dei Debate.

      1. Hall, Imaging God,

      20

      ; the internal quote is from Paul Ricoeur.

      2. Buckley, Buoys for Eccentric Existence,

      15

      .

      3. Greggs, David Kelsey, Eccentric Existence,

      449

      .

      4. Ford, What, How, and Who,

      41

      . Also published with slight amendments as Ford, Humanity Before God,

      31

      .

      5. Outka, Theological Anthropology of David Kelsey. Consider also McAnnally-Linz, Extrinsic Grace and Eccentric Existence.

      6. Thiel, Methodological Choices,

      1

      ; cf. Craigo-Snell, From Narrative to Performance,

      147

      .

      7. Wood, Response to Eccentric Existence,

      16

      .

      8. Moran, Review of Eccentric Existence,

      53

      .

      9. During the course of this project, we will follow Tom Greggs’s referencing of EE. As such, all in-text citations of page numbers are to EE. See Greggs, David Kelsey, Eccentric Existence.

      10. Kelsey uses A and B chapters to distinguish the two.

      11. Lindbeck, in Nature of Doctrine, concludes by questioning whether the postliberal project will be pursued. He states that there is much talk but little actual performance (Lindbeck, Nature of Doctrine,

      135)

      . It is arguable that his Yale colleague has here performed, although one wonders if Kelsey is included in the younger theologians about whom Lindbeck longingly exclaims, May their tribe increase. See Lindbeck, Nature of Doctrine,

      135

      .

      12. Marais, Eccentric Existence? The focus of Marais’s thesis, being that of ecotheology, is entirely different from the project at hand.

      13. The relation between each of these terms are expounded on in chapter

      4

      of our project.

      1

      A Genuine Choice?

      Throughout Christian theology’s long history, the answer to the question ‘What is the human being?’ has often been given, consciously or unconsciously, within the context of the doctrine of the imago Dei. This phrase has been used as a categorical marker, that is to say, as some essential structural feature of human beings that constitutes them as distinctively human and distinguishes them from animals who do not exhibit God’s image (895).¹⁴ The term has been taken to speak to the very essence of humanity:¹⁵ the humanum¹⁶ or vere Homo.¹⁷ Ray Anderson goes so far as to say that the bestowal of the image of God bestows humanity itself.¹⁸ As such, the doctrine’s importance cannot be overemphasized. To many, the position taken on the imago Dei has ramifications for every other area of Christian belief¹⁹ and for the very meaning and value of humanity itself. In the words of Pope John Paul II:

      Man²⁰ has meaning in this world only as the image and likeness of God. Otherwise, he has no meaning and we might be led to say, as some people have done, that man is nothing but ‘useless suffering.’²¹

      It is no surprise, then, that the doctrine of the image of God has been widely debated with numerous proposals put forward regarding the exact meaning of the term ‘imago Dei.’ Suggestions range from humanity’s rationality to free will,²² from the physical body²³ to human dominion over creation.²⁴ The sheer volume of work makes it almost impossible to produce even a summary of these varying proposals.²⁵ In fact, there is no agreement as to how many unique proposals exist and their individual historical and contextual developments.²⁶

      The reader will be relieved to learn that this chapter makes no attempt to produce this elusive definitive summary. As David Cairns laments, such a summary would be in danger of confusing the reader, who would find the account disjointed.²⁷ Yet it is the task of the theologian to make sense of this doctrine, for to fail to do so would be to fail, as Pope John Paul II has suggested, to find meaning and purpose for the human condition. Such a failure, in the words of J. Edward Barrett, would be an act of theological irresponsibility.²⁸

      With this in mind, this chapter concerns itself with what are widely considered to be the two broad categories into which most (if not all) theological positions regarding this doctrine fall: the substantive and relational.²⁹ These two categories are often presented as two mutually exclusive choices³⁰ in answer to the questions surrounding the imago Dei. The question this chapter considers is whether or not the substantive-relational debate does indeed present us with two viable yet conflicting alternatives to the anthropological ‘What?’ question, or if in fact this debate presents a counterfeit choice between two positions which, while being approached from different mindsets,³¹ represent similar answers in different theological garb.

      The Substantive Scheme

      The substantive view, held by the majority of historical thinkers (895–97),³² is perhaps the best known.³³ Hall argues that it is impossible to think of the imago Dei without referring to this view, if only subconsciously.³⁴ It remains deeply entrenched in protestant evangelical theology and is still very much current.³⁵ The central tenet of this view is that the image of God is found within the very essence of anthropos. The very substance³⁶ of the species known as Homo sapiens contains, in some form or another, the image of God. Thus, Homo sapiens possess certain characteristics, qualities, capacities, original excellences or endowments.³⁷ Since these attributes resemble corresponding qualities that one considers to be found in the Godhead, their possession makes humans like God.³⁸

      The most widely held account puts forward human rationality as the cardinal characteristic. According to Stanley Grenz, the origin of this understanding may be found not in the biblical texts themselves but in the context of early Christianity. The early church fathers grappled with the Greek philosophical tradition and, following an Aristotelian structure of defining objects per genius proximum et differentiam, defined human beings as the rational animal.³⁹ Human reason was considered the divine spark, which was later extended to include human will and volition (considered by many as two aspects of the single rationality with which God endowed human beings).⁴⁰ Grenz notes that this approach was so widely accepted in early church history that church fathers (both in the East and the West) took for granted that the human person was just such a rational animal.⁴¹

      Edmund Hill argues that under Augustine’s⁴² teaching on the rational human soul, particularly as it images the Trinity in the three faculties of memory, intellect and will, the structural view flourished. Augustine’s teaching became the standard interpretation in the theology of the medieval Western church, and it was this teaching that was adopted and adapted by Aquinas.⁴³ It is Grenz’s contention that while Augustine was Aquinas’ theological father, Aristotle was his philosophical mentor, and through a recasting of the Augustinian deposit in light of Aristotle’s philosophy, Aquinas concluded that only intellectual creatures (specifically angels and humans) were made in God’s image.⁴⁴

      Aquinas’s theology developed a highly intellect-focused understanding of the divine image. Grenz argues that Aquinas believed God placed within the soul of every person the intellectual faculty as a natural capacity.⁴⁵ As a universally present structural quality of every human being, humans actually are the image of God. This image cannot be lost or destroyed, not even by the fall.⁴⁶

      It is this aspect—the universality of the image of God within every human being—that is the primary concern for substantive thinkers and offers the greatest lure for those eager to affirm universal human rights. If Christians are to assent to the concept of human rights—and there is much evidence that the vast majority of Christianity upholds this view⁴⁷—then a universal human attribute must be identified as the basis for such an ontology, an ontology which ascribes to human creatures such a radical distinction from the rest of creation.

      Since the doctrine of the imago Dei has acted as the convergence of all Christian declarations about human rights,⁴⁸ the implied universality of the substantive position is an attractive option. In affirming a universally present imago Dei, substantialistic thinkers attempt to establish and uphold the universal dignity and value of human beings everywhere, and in so doing establish the foundation upon which universal, inalienable human rights are built.

      Yet the substantive concern to find this universally present distinctive human element is not always successful. It is a well-known fact that many human beings do not always display attributes such as rationality. Infants, those in comas and those with severe disabilities, to name but a few, display limited intellectual capabilities. In these cases, the universality of the substantive position is in question, and as a consequence the foundation of human dignity and value. We have more to say about this shortly, but for now let us consider the counter-scheme.

      The Relational Scheme

      The relational view may be considered relatively new to the debate.⁴⁹ Although some have argued that the origins of relational understandings lie in Augustine,⁵⁰ there is general acknowledgement that it is in Reformation thinkers where the relational view took root in earnest.⁵¹ The reason for the move away from the medieval Aquinian substantive position is disputed. Cairns, for example, claims that Luther was afraid of the substantive view because it threatened his doctrine of sola gratia. If the image of God is to be found structurally within the human being, so Luther believed, it would imply that all human beings, at least in part, were universally valuable/worthy and therefore do not require grace for salvation.⁵² Others have noted that while Luther did not openly stress the relational view, Calvin expressly taught it.⁵³ Cairns goes so far as to say that no other theologian since Augustine gave as much attention to the doctrine of the imago Dei as Calvin.⁵⁴ Building on what Augustine alludes to in On the Trinity, Calvin takes the metaphor of mirror and makes it central to his theology of the divine image. Using this metaphor, Calvin builds on a dynamic ontology of existence by expounding on the divine image as the act of mirroring God.⁵⁵ In this way, the image is not seen as something human beings possess, but something human beings have the potential to enact.⁵⁶

      What the reformers began so many years ago has, in recent times, begun to take root and flourish. The past century’s emphasis on a social Trinitarian Theo-ontology⁵⁷ and the recent turn to relationality as a fundamental basis for ontology⁵⁸ have contributed greatly to the contemporary understanding of the imago Dei and Christian anthropology as a whole. Against the background of just such a turn in Christian theology, theologians such as Grenz are able to claim that there is a near consensus that person is a relational concept⁵⁹ and that, therefore, Christian anthropology should consider the imago Dei relationally rather than substantively.⁶⁰ In the West, a number of key thinkers have emerged in support of just such a claim. If one considers, for example, the work of Karl Barth,⁶¹ G. C. Berkouwer,⁶² Hall⁶³ and Grenz,⁶⁴ there is ample evidence to claim that, while the substantive view has hardly disappeared, the relational view has become very popular.

      Rather than seeking the answers to the questions surrounding the imago Dei in endowments, gifts or capacities (which Hall believes are means to an end rather than ends themselves⁶⁵), relational thinkers appeal to the inclination and proclivity in the human being toward relationality, particularly the relationship between God and mankind.⁶⁶ This is, according to the relational camp, the definitive feature that separates human beings from the rest of creation:

      Hence there is no point in asking in which of man’s peculiar attributes and attitudes it [the image] consists. It does not consist in anything that man is. . . . He [God] willed the existence of a being which in all its non-deity and therefore its differentiation can be a real partner; which is capable of action and responsibility in relation to him; to which his own divine form of life is not alien; which in a creaturely repetition, as a copy and imitation, can be a bearer of this form of life.⁶⁷

      Using the metaphor of a mirror, relational thinkers consider the image of God not as something which is static (gifted to the human being) but which is dynamic (the vocation of the human being).⁶⁸ Such thinkers use the word ‘image’ as a verb⁶⁹ to indicate that which happens as the human being is orientated to God as a mirror is turned to an object.⁷⁰ The image of God is not that which the human being is, but that which the human being does and develops into as they turn to God (and particularly to Jesus) in responsive relationship.⁷¹ The ultimate fulfilling of this image awaits eschatological consummation when the human being can reflect God unimpeded.⁷²

      The value of relational thinking lies in its dynamic ontology. Rather than viewing human existence from a static perspective, whereby the human being is simply gifted their essential nature, relational thinkers call on the human being as a responsible counterpart

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