Apostle of Persuasion: Theology and Rhetoric in the Pauline Letters

Apostle

of

Persuasion

Apostle

of

Persuasion

Theology and Rhetoric in the Pauline Letters

James W. Thompson

K

© 2020 by James W. Thompson

Published by Baker Academic

a division of Baker Publishing Group

Grand Rapids, Michigan

BakerAcademic.com

Ebook edition created 2020

Ebook corrections 06.25.2024

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

ISBN 978-1-4934-2361-3

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled AT are the author’s own.

Scripture quotations labeled NASB are from the New American Standard Bible® (NASB), copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. www.Lockman.org

Scripture quotations labeled NIV are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com. The NIV and New International Version are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™

Scripture quotations labeled RSV are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1946, 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

For Carolyn

Contents

Cover

Half Title Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Abbreviations

Introduction: Rhetoric and Theology in Paul

1. The Rhetoric of Paul’s Letters

2. Paul and the Pharisaic Tradition

3. Where Christian Theology Began: Jesus and the Early Church

4. Paul’s Ethos and His Theology

5. First Thessalonians: A Template for Theological Reflection

6. Christology and Persuasion

7. Greco-Roman Values and the Theology of the Cross: The Corinthian Correspondence

8. The Theology of the Cross and Justification by Faith

9. Romans, the Righteousness of God, and the Defense of Paul’s Ministry

10. Seek the Things That Are Above: Persuasion in Colossians and Ephesians

11. Pauline Theology and Rhetoric in the Pastoral Epistles

Conclusion: Paul’s Pastoral Theology

Bibliography

Name Index

Scripture and Ancient Sources Index

Subject Index

Back Cover

Abbreviations

General

Old Testament

New Testament

Old Testament Apocrypha

Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

Dead Sea Scrolls

Philo

Josephus

Rabbinic Works and Tractates

Classical Authors

ANAXIMENES OF LAMPSACUS

ARISTOTLE

CICERO

DEMOSTHENES

DIO CHRYSOSTOM

DIOGENES LAERTIUS

EPICTETUS

ISOCRATES

OVID

PLATO

QUINTILIAN

SENECA

SUETONIUS

THEOPHRASTUS

Secondary Sources

Introduction

Rhetoric and Theology in Paul

Arthur Koestler once described a children’s puzzle from his childhood; the puzzle was a paper with a tangle of very thin blue and red lines. If you just looked at it, you couldn’t make out anything. But if you covered it with a piece of transparent red tissue paper, the red lines of the drawing disappeared and the blue lines formed a picture—it was a clown in a circus holding a hoop with a little dog jumping through it. If you covered the same drawing with a blue tissue paper, a roaring lion appeared chasing the clown across the ring. The puzzle is illustrative: you can do the same thing with every mortal, living or dead.1

The multilayered drawing is an appropriate metaphor for the study of any figure of the past, as Koestler maintained. It is especially the case with the apostle Paul. N. T. Wright also illustrates the same point, but with different metaphors, recalling that Water Lilies, Claude Monet’s painting, employs layer upon layer and that no interpretation can limit itself to one layer. Wright offers another metaphor, imagining accompanying a song with only two or three strings and suggesting that many interpretations of Paul proceed as though his writings were a one-stringed instrument.2

He has been described variously as a moral philosopher in the Greek tradition, a mystic, a rabbi, the founder of Christian literature, and a rhetorician.3

Because of these multiple dimensions of Paul, Wayne Meeks describes him as the Christian Proteus.4

But as Luke Timothy Johnson says, Much more difficult is the question of what holds these dimensions together.5

The task of this book is to examine the relationship between two layers in the Pauline correspondence: his theology and his rhetoric.

Paul the Theologian

Because of the importance of normative doctrine in Western Christianity, interpreters have described Paul as the first Christian theologian.6

Protestant churches in particular have looked to Paul as the source of timeless truths that can be applied in all ages.7

According to N. T. Wright, "Paul actually invents something that we may call Christian theology."8

His letters include a discourse that is unprecedented in the Jewish and Greek traditions. He demonstrates an awareness of the rabbinic midrash homily (cf. Rom. 4:1–29; 2 Cor. 3:7–18; Gal. 3:6–29), employing Hillel’s rules for interpretation,9

but he rarely writes in this form. While he presupposes the story of God’s saving deeds, he does not write in narrative form. Although his letters—especially in the outer frame—follow the pattern of ancient letter writing, the sustained arguments in his letters have few parallels.10

Indeed, epistles are well suited for his engagement in a battle of ideas, for Paul can employ this literary form to engage in sustained arguments against his opponents. Like his philosophical contemporaries, he destroys strongholds, the arguments that are raised up by his opponents against the knowledge of God (2 Cor. 10:4).11

Thus theologians of later centuries have looked to Paul as their model for theological argumentation and source of Christian doctrine.

If Paul is the first Christian theologian, however, he does not fit the Western understanding of thinkers who organize their thought into neat categories. Instead he writes occasional letters, responding to a variety of questions. His thoughts on Christology and soteriology, for example, are scattered among his letters in his responses to various issues. While he has been our primary source for Christian doctrines, he does not use the terms that later became the categories of dogmatic theology, and he never arranges those thoughts in a systematic way, as if they were discrete topics that could be separated from each other or from the situations in which he expresses himself. Paul, instead, writes letters, often in the heat of battle, over a period of more than a decade.

Obstacles to Writing Pauline Theology

Scholars who attempt to organize Paul’s thought in a systematic fashion face at least three major obstacles. First, the fact that his letters are responses to the questions raised in his communities over a period of time limits interpreters’ capacity for distilling the essential thought of the apostle. New issues in the churches call for new theological reflection. Topics that are the central focus of one letter are scarcely mentioned in others. The second obstacle is that the interpreter faces the apparent inconsistency in Paul’s treatment of the traditional topics. For example, the expectation that we who are alive . . . will be caught up . . . to meet the Lord . . . in the air (1 Thess. 4:17) when the day of the Lord comes as a thief in the night (1 Thess. 5:2) suggests Paul’s expectation of the imminence of Christ’s return, while his desire to depart and be with Christ (Phil. 1:23; cf. 2 Cor. 5:1–10) appears to assume a return to Christ at death. Indeed, a primary reason that 2 Thessalonians is widely considered pseudonymous is that the extended period of time before the parousia envisioned in 2 Thessalonians conflicts with the imminent expectation in 1 Thessalonians. A comparison of statements about the end-time in Paul’s letters will not yield a consistent eschatology.

Scholars have also observed other inconsistencies in Paul. Heikki Räisänen, for example, maintains that there is an inconsistency in Paul’s statements about the law. Paul states in unambiguous terms that the law has been abolished, but he also makes statements that imply that the law is still valid and even appeals to Old Testament commands.12

Räisänen adds, While generally holding fast to the divine origin of the law, Paul once in a heated debate also suggests that it was only given by angels and is thus inferior.13

Additionally, Räisänen and others argue that Paul’s view of the destiny of disobedient Israel is inconsistent. In Romans 9, Paul resorts to the extreme explanation of a divine hardening that takes place regardless of human activity (Rom. 9:6–29), whereas in the very next chapter he puts all emphasis on Israel’s notorious disobedience. In chapter 11, at last, Paul definitely discards his predestinarian construction and replaces it with the statement that Israel’s obduracy is of a temporary nature. But this runs counter to 1 Thessalonians 2:14–16 as well.14

The third obstacle faced by interpreters involves the determination of which letters are actually written by Paul. While issues of style and setting play a role in the assessment of Pauline authorship, finding coherence between the theology of the disputed letters and the seven undisputed letters raises the question, What is Pauline theology in actuality?

Approaches to Pauline Theology

In an attempt to overcome these obstacles, interpreters have employed a variety of approaches to the apostle’s thought. Since most scholars have approached Paul from a confessional standpoint, the need for a constructive theology has made the discovery of a coherent theology in Paul an indispensable task. From Luther to the present, scholars have assumed a canon within the canon, a center of Paul’s theology. For Luther and his successors, justification by faith is the center of Pauline theology, and Galatians and Romans are the primary focus. But in recent years, alternative proposals have been made. Jürgen Becker argues that the cross is the center of Pauline thought and the presupposition for the doctrine of justification.15

For Michael Wolter, the center of Pauline thought is the certainty of Christ-faith, that the God of Israel has acted eschatologically in Jesus Christ for the salvation of all humankind and that this event is made present in the Pauline gospel of salvation for ‘everyone who believes’ (Rom. 1:16).16

James Dunn resists the image of the center but insists that Jesus Christ is the fulcrum, pivot point, and criterion by which everything is measured.17

While numerous approaches to Pauline theology have treated the apostle’s thought without regard to the contingent situation of his letters, J. Christiaan Beker argues for the interplay of the coherence of Paul’s thought in the context of the contingent situation, maintaining that the coherent center of Paul’s theology is the triumph of God.18

For Udo Schnelle, "The eschatological presence of God’s salvation in Jesus Christ is the basis and center of Pauline thought."19

Thus the attempt to discover the center has not led to unanimity.

Development in Pauline Thought

Because of these obstacles in ascertaining a coherent Pauline theology, scholars have proposed that Paul’s thought develops over time, arguing that 1 Thessalonians is a statement of early Pauline theology and that the imminent eschatology of 1 Thessalonians recedes as Paul comes to grips with the delay of the parousia.20

The absence of the major Pauline themes in the letter, including justification by faith and the problem of the law, is presented as evidence of early Pauline theology.21

As a result, Romans, commonly regarded as the last among the undisputed letters of Paul, is widely regarded as the mature statement of Paul’s theology. Indeed, traditional Protestant scholarship has followed Melanchthon’s statement that Romans is the compendium of Pauline theology. Indeed, James Dunn’s Pauline Theology is based on Romans because it represents Paul’s mature thought.22

While development in Paul’s theology remains a possibility, the capacity of the interpreter to follow the lines of development is less likely. If we consider the span of Paul’s life and ministry, 1 Thessalonians, written seventeen years after Paul’s conversion, is scarcely early Pauline theology. Indeed, the span of Paul’s letter-writing activity is less than that of his life between his conversion/call and the writing of 1 Thessalonians. Furthermore, no consensus exists on the sequence of Paul’s letters. The dating of both Galatians and Philippians, for example, is disputed. Furthermore, the tracing of the development of Paul’s thought ignores the dialogical nature of his letters as the response to questions that were asked. Therefore, the one-dimensional treatment of Paul as theologian fails to acknowledge the relationship between his theology and his mode of communication.

The Other Layers: Sociology and Rhetoric in the Study of Paul

Attempts to determine the center of Paul’s theology treat Paul as a man of ideas, examining only one strand of the total picture of Paul. Wolfgang Stegemann comments on Michael Wolter’s Paul: An Outline of His Theology, saying that both Paul and his readers appear to be disembodied in Wolter’s book: Their faith has little to do with their bodies and their social reality but involves especially cognitive contents and problems.23

A similar critique could be offered of other treatments of Pauline theology that have routinely examined his theology in isolation from the circumstances of his churches, his rhetorical needs, and his own understanding of his task. Major studies of Pauline theology, including those of Ferdinand Hahn,24

James Dunn,25

and N. T. Wright,26

give no attention to the rhetorical dimension in Pauline theology.

In the last generation, scholars have focused on other layers of Paul’s letters,27

moving beyond the traditional confessional issues to explore, among other topics, Paul’s relationship to the empire,28

ethnicity,29

and gender30

—the questions that reflect our own intellectual climate. But the rise of sociological and rhetorical criticism has raised the question of the relationship between Paul’s theology and his strategies for persuasion—two layers in the study of Paul. Krister Stendahl argues that the doctrine of justification by faith is not the center but is instead a means of defending the gentile mission: The doctrine of justification by faith was hammered out by Paul for the very specific and limited purpose of defending the rights of Gentile converts to be full and genuine heirs to the promise of God to Israel.31

Some have argued that Paul employs strategies of community building and rhetoric to advance his theology, while others reduce his theology to strategy. For example, Francis Watson argues that Pauline texts become much more readily comprehensible when one abandons this overtly theological approach.32

He claims that Paul first preached to the gentiles as a result of the failure of his mission to the Jews: Paul protests that his reasons for dispensing with the law are strictly theological ([Gal.] 2:15–5:11), but his own words in 1 Corinthians 9:21 and 10:32–33 prove that the setting aside of parts of the law was originally not a matter of theological principle but of practical expediency. He adds, To prevent their bitter experience of almost total rejection being repeated, they set aside some of the requirements of the law which would be most offensive to Gentiles, and so ensured the success of their preaching. Paul’s theological discussions about the law are therefore attempts to justify this essentially non-theological decision.33

Employing the sociological categories of sectarian groups, Watson insists that the maintenance of the community as a distinct religious body requires an ideology legitimating its identity—that is, a theoretical justification for its existence.34

Theology becomes strategy.

The rise of rhetorical criticism has also raised questions about the relationship between Paul’s theology and his strategy. Scholars have increasingly acknowledged that Paul is not merely the source of disembodied ideas; his goal is to persuade the audience and affect their behavior. In the past generation, this relationship between theology and rhetoric has been a question of continuing concern.

The debate about Paul’s rhetoric and theology begins with an examination of Paul’s initial interaction with his churches. As one devoted to public speaking, he was naturally compared to the orators of his time by his converts, some of whom judged him untrained in speech (idōtēs tō logō, 2 Cor. 11:6; cf. 10:10). With his insistence that he did not employ persuasive words of wisdom (2 Cor. 2:4; cf. Gal. 1:10), he disavowed the practice that was the heart of ancient rhetoric.35

Similarly, his denial that he employed flattery (cf. 1 Thess. 2:5) or attempted to please his audience (Gal. 1:10; 1 Thess. 2:4) distinguished him from the common perception of the rhetoricians.36

His claim not to be among those who peddle (kapēleuontes) God’s word (2 Cor. 2:17) echoes the criticism of the Sophists, who went about "hawking [kapēleuō] their doctrines to any odd purchaser who desire[d] them" (Plato, Prot. 313d). Indeed, Paul consistently refers to his public speaking in terms that are "decidedly nonrhetorical; rhetoricians did not use such verbs as euangelizein, kēryssein, and katangelein to describe their practice."37

Despite these disclaimers, Paul declares, We persuade others (2 Cor. 5:11). Indeed, this declaration introduces a dense argumentative section (2 Cor. 5:11–6:2) that is intended to persuade the Corinthians to be reconciled to God (2 Cor. 5:20). Thus persuasion plays a role in the letters. Paul develops theological arguments to state the implications of the gospel while providing his community with arguments that they can then employ against opponents (cf. 2 Cor. 5:12). While his original preaching is an announcement of the good news, the letters both restate the original message and develop arguments consistent with his ultimate goal for his churches.

As interpreters since Augustine have noted, Paul argues with rhetorical competence. While we know little about his rhetorical training,38

we recognize abundant evidence that his letters were not boxes full of theology.39

As his opponents conceded, His letters are weighty and strong (2 Cor. 10:10). Scholars have examined both his arrangement and his style, demonstrating the coherence of his arguments and classifying stylistic features into rhetorical categories. Lauri Thurén has pointed out that Paul’s statements are not always to be taken at face value, for he speaks with irony (cf. 1 Cor. 4:8–9; 2 Cor. 11:20), frequently exaggerates,40

and employs praise as a means of ethical persuasion. Paul’s task is not only to inform or to educate but also to affect the readers and to shape their behavior. Consequently, contradictory statements may be accounted for by differing persuasive tasks.41

Thus the relationship between Paul’s theology and rhetoric is a persistent issue in Pauline scholarship.

The traditional model approaches theology and rhetoric as separate disciplines. Many treat rhetoric and theology as rooted in the classic distinction between form and content, res and verba. One can change the form without changing the content.42

Johannes Weiss, who offered an extensive treatment of Paul’s rhetorical style, suggests that one should discern between rhetorical devices in a text and the doctrine that is already fixed and pronounced.43

Rudolf Bultmann, who wrote both a study of Pauline rhetoric and the classic New Testament Theology,44

assumed that theology was the content and rhetoric was the form. Unfortunately, most studies of Pauline theology do not engage in rhetorical analysis.

According to another model, Paul maintains a coherent set of convictions, but rhetoric and theology are interwoven in various ways. Paul is not an opportunist who changes positions to please his audience but one who employs rhetoric to defend the truth of the gospel. According to Jürgen Becker, Paul employs rhetoric primarily in polemical texts such as Galatians, where the needs of polemic prevent Paul from giving a well-balanced view of the law and faith.45

Indeed, Whoever wants to understand Paul must distinguish between his serious concerns and his polemical attacks.46

Similarly, J. Christiaan Beker, in distinguishing between the coherence and the contingency of Paul’s argument, maintains that Paul is a coherent thinker who holds a firm set of convictions while employing rhetorical devices to fit specific contexts: Without a coherent center, Paul [would] degenerate into a purely opportunistic theologian, who, with the help of various rhetorical skills, adapts the gospel to whatever the sociological situation demands.47

Lauri Thurén recognizes the rhetorical dimension but argues that the interpreter’s task is to distinguish between the theology and the rhetoric of Paul’s letters. Taking Galatians as his example, he argues that the purpose of Galatians is not theoretical; it is to persuade the community to follow Paul, not the other teachers.48

Consequently, Paul does not record all of his thoughts but presents a one-sided view for rhetorical effect.49

The interpreter’s task, therefore, is to derhetorize—to separate the theological statements from the exaggeration and pathos that have a rhetorical effect.

By analyzing Paul’s letters in chronological order and by applying rhetorical analysis to each letter, Hans Hübner tries to illuminate the dynamic character of Paul’s theology. According to Hübner, theological thinking for Paul is theological arguing. Argumentation is the development of thought about theological questions, and in his argumentation, the apostle shows rhetorical competence.50

Theology is a process of developing convincing arguments in a specific rhetorical situation in which content of theological thought and contingent rhetoric are intertwined. Only the convictional core—the proclamation of the gospel of justification, for example—is not touched by rhetoric.51

According to another model, theology and rhetoric do not relate as content and form. Rather, the theological content is part of the rhetorical means in persuading the audience.52

In examining the theology of Ephesians, Andrew T. Lincoln insists that the letter is not primarily focused on communicating coherent ideas. It is a letter written for pastoral purposes: It achieves its purposes by rhetorical means, by adopting a strategy of persuasion. In his attempt to persuade, the writer constructs a symbolic universe, which the readers are expected to share to a large extent.53

Johan S. Vos recalls the ancient debates between the Platonists and the rhetoricians, comparing them with the contemporary discussion on the relationship between theology and rhetoric in Paul. According to the Platonists, truth exists apart from human opinions and the means by which truth is expressed. Platonists, then, distinguished between the res (the conceptual content) and the verba (the words) used to communicate the res.54

According to the (neo)-sophistic view, truth is contingent, something the orator creates. Truth is what communities are persuaded of at any particular time.55

Some scholars interpret Paul in Platonic terms, ignoring the rhetorical dimension of his arguments. Other scholars take a neo-sophistic view, interpreting theology as a form of strategy.

Paul, Persuasion, and the Goals of the Orator

For ancient orators, all strategies of persuasion were determined by the orator’s goal of gaining the appropriate result from the listeners: the acceptance of the argument. In the search for the center of Pauline theology, little attention has been given to Paul’s understanding of God’s telos for the world and humankind. With the exception of Philemon, all the undisputed letters, as well as Colossians and Ephesians, declare God’s ultimate purpose. Missing from the discussion of rhetoric and theology in Paul, however, is the apostle’s own understanding of himself and his goals, which he states on numerous occasions. Paul consistently announces the aims that govern his persuasion, both in summary statements of his ultimate ambition and in his prayers for the congregations. The telos of his ministry aligns with God’s telos, for he has been called to be God’s servant. The letters are not theological essays but his means of persuading the readers to reach that goal.

Telos in Paul’s Prayer Reports

The introductory thanksgivings, or prayer reports, provide an important indicator of the central concerns and telos of Pauline thought. Unlike the rare thanksgivings in Hellenistic letters,56

Paul’s prayer reports express gratitude for the community’s moral progress from the time of their conversion until Paul writes (from the first day until now, Phil. 1:5; cf. 1 Thess. 1:5–10; Philem. 3–5). Paul Schubert observes that an eschatological climax also appears frequently in the thanksgivings,57

as Paul looks toward the end, reflecting his understanding of a community that is in the middle of a corporate narrative that stands between the past and the future under the power of God.58

In his prayer reports, Paul describes the end of the narrative as the day of our Lord Jesus (1 Cor. 1:8), the day of Christ Jesus (Phil. 1:6), the day of Christ (Phil. 1:10), and the parousia (1 Thess. 3:13). Elsewhere in his letters, he speaks of the day of the Lord (1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Cor. 1:14; 1 Thess. 5:2), the day of wrath (Rom. 2:5), the day when . . . God judges the secrets of the heart (Rom. 2:16), the day of Christ (Phil. 2:16), or simply the day (Rom. 13:12; 1 Cor. 3:13), adapting the prophetic expectation of the day of the Lord to the hope of believers for the return of Christ. For Paul, the Lord is the exalted Christ, who will descend from heaven (1 Thess. 4:16; cf. Phil. 3:20; 1 Thess. 1:10). Living between the past of God’s saving acts and the future day of the Lord, the community waits for the ultimate redemption (1 Cor. 1:7; Gal. 5:5; Phil. 3:20; 1 Thess. 1:10). Thus the church stands in the middle of a corporate narrative.

This interim period is a time of moral transformation, for Paul consistently expresses confidence (1 Cor. 1:8) or prays that his communities will be morally formed at the day of Christ. Paul uses a variety of synonyms, frequently terms with the alpha privative, to describe this transformed community.

Speaking to a deeply flawed community in Corinth, Paul expresses the confidence that God "will strengthen [the Corinthians], so that [they] are blameless [anenklētos] until the end at the day of the Lord" (1 Cor. 1:8). Anenklētos, a term used in the Septuagint only in 3 Maccabees 5:31, is a judicial image describing one against whom no one can bring charges (cf. Rom. 8:33, Who can bring charges against God’s elect?).59

In Colossians 1:22, it is used synonymously with "holy [hagios] and unblemished [amōmos]" (AT), and in the Pastoral Epistles, the term is used for the requirements for Christian leaders (cf. 1 Tim. 3:10; Titus 1:6–7). Paul emphasizes that it is God who is at work to transform a morally deficient community into one that is irreproachable at the end (1 Cor. 1:8).

In Philippians, Paul adds a petition to his introductory thanksgiving (Phil. 1:9–11), praying that the community will be "sincere [eilikrinēs] and faultless [aproskopos] at the day of Christ" (Phil. 1:10). Eilikrinēs, literally unmixed, without alloy,60

signifies the sincerity and purity of motive (1 Cor. 5:8; Plato, Phaed. 66) that Paul claims for himself (cf. 2 Cor. 2:17). With aproskopos, literally without giving offense,61

Paul elaborates on the meaning of these terms, indicating that the faultless behavior involves love that grows increasingly in full knowledge and discernment (Phil. 1:9), the capacity to discern the better things (Phil. 1:10), and a life that demonstrates the fruit of righteousness (Phil. 1:11 NIV). Indeed, as in 1 Corinthians, Paul is confident that the God who began a good work among the Philippians will bring it to completion at the day of Christ (Phil. 1:6) in a transformed community.

In 1 Thessalonians, Paul offers thanksgiving for the community’s moral progress in 1:2–10 and later prays to God that the Lord will cause them to increase and abound in love for one another and for all and that they will be "blameless [amemptos] in holiness [hagiōsynē] before our God and Father at the parousia" (1 Thess. 3:12–13). Amemptos is a common term in the Old Testament for the righteous person (cf. Gen. 17:1 LXX) and is especially prominent in the Wisdom of Solomon and Job. According to Wisdom 10:5, it is synonymous with righteousness (cf. Luke 1:6), and in Wisdom 10:15, it is synonymous with holy. Job was blameless and upright (Job 1:1, 8), unlike anyone else on earth. His blamelessness is a constant thread throughout the drama of the book (cf. Job 4:17; 9:20; 11:4; 12:4; 15:14; 33:9). Paul, prior to his conversion, was also amemptos in keeping the law (Phil. 3:6).

In the concluding benediction in 1 Thessalonians (5:23), Paul reinforces the prayer of 3:11–13, praying that God will sanctify the community wholly, that their spirit and soul and body will be blameless (amemptos) at the parousia. Thus, while they are incomplete in their faith at the moment (cf. 3:8), Paul prays that God will act to sanctify them in preparation for the end.

As the two prayer reports in 1 Thessalonians indicate (3:11–13; 5:23), the moral formation that Paul describes is the process of sanctification. Hagiōsynē signifies holiness as a completed process (cf. 2 Cor. 7:1), the work that God has brought to completion by the day of Jesus Christ (Phil. 1:6), while the verb hagiasai (1 Thess. 5:23) points to the continuing process in which God is at work. This process is especially evident in the prayer that the Thessalonians increase and abound in love for one another and for all (1 Thess. 3:12) and in the instruction that the Thessalonians’ sanctification (hagiasmos) involves an appropriate sexual ethic (1 Thess. 4:3, 7). Thus just as God called Israel to be holy as God is holy (Lev. 19:2), Paul envisions a process in which the church, which lives in continuity with Israel, becomes what God intended Israel to be before the end.

Paul’s prayers probably also reflect Israel’s hope that a flawed people would ultimately stand before God as a restored and righteous community.62

Trito-Isaiah looks forward to the return from exile when the people will be righteous (dikaios, Isa. 60:21). Zechariah promises a restored Israel in which the people will speak truth to one another, render . . . judgments that are true and make for peace, and love no false oaths (Zech. 8:16–17). Jeremiah anticipates a new covenant in which the law is written on the hearts of the people (Jer. 31:31–34), and Ezekiel anticipates a time when God will intervene to cleanse Israel and make them follow his statutes (Ezek. 36:25–27). Similarly, 1 Enoch 10:21 anticipates the time when the children of the earth will become righteous, and all nations shall worship and bless [the Lord]. Like the prophets, Paul looks forward to the end of Israel’s narrative and the restoration of a righteous people from all the nations of the earth. In describing the telos of moral formation for his communities, Paul also encourages his communities indirectly to be shaped by his ethical vision.

Telos in Paul’s Pastoral Goals

Paul consistently announces his own pastoral goals, indicating that he is not only the herald who preaches where Christ has not been named (Rom. 15:19–20) but also the servant who anticipates presenting a sanctified people to God at the day of the Lord. He is God’s instrument for bringing God’s purpose for humanity to completion, and his goals align with the purposes of God. This alignment is evident in 1 Thessalonians, his earliest letter. Not only does he pray for a blameless people at the parousia, but he also expresses his mission to establish their moral formation. Using parental imagery (1 Thess. 2:17; cf. 2:7–8), he declares that the church is his hope or joy or crown of boasting (1 Thess. 2:19) at the parousia and his glory and joy! (1 Thess. 2:20). This crown of boasting is apparently their blamelessness and holiness at the day of Christ (cf. 1 Thess. 3:13).

In Philippians, Paul prays for the moral formation of the community in 1:9–11 and then declares that his goal is that the community be "blameless [amōmoi] and pure [akeraioi] in a crooked and perverse generation (Phil. 2:15 AT) and his boast [kauchēma] on the day of Christ" (Phil. 2:16). Amōmos, which can be used for those who have no physical or moral defects,63

is a term the Septuagint frequently employs for those who keep God’s commands. The psalmist speaks of those who walk blamelessly (Ps. 15:2 [14:2 LXX]; cf. 18:23 [17:23 LXX]; 19:13 [18:13 LXX]; 37:18 [36:18 LXX]; 119:1, 80 [118:1, 80 LXX]), and the wisdom literature speaks of those who are morally blameless (Prov. 11:20; Sir. 40:19; Eccles. 11:9). The term can be used synonymously with righteous(ness) (cf. Prov. 11:5; 20:7; Isa. 33:15). According to Ephesians (1:4), God’s plan from the beginning was a people that would be "holy [hagios] and blameless [amōmos]"; and Christ, as a result of his death (Eph. 5:27; cf. Col. 1:22), will present to himself a church that is holy (hagia) and blameless (amōmos).

Paul adds to amōmos in Philippians 2:15 the synonymous word innocent (akeraios), a term that was used for that which is still in its original state of intactness in reference to a country, city, or walls but then became used metaphorically for the moral purity64

that should characterize his communities at the end (cf. Rom. 16:19, guileless in what is evil).

As in 1 Thessalonians (3:13; 5:23), Paul associates the final outcome of his churches with sanctification. In summarizing his purpose in writing Romans as the apologetic for his ministry (Rom. 15:14–21), he describes himself in priestly terms, declaring that he is a servant (leitourgos) doing priestly service (hierourgounta) so that the offering of the Gentiles may be acceptable, sanctified in the Spirit (Rom. 15:16). Sanctification is the completed process that began with the gentile community’s baptism (cf. Rom. 6:1–21; 1 Cor. 6:11) and continued as converts yielded themselves to hagiasmos (Rom. 6:19, 22). His calling for the obedience of . . . the Gentiles, mentioned at the beginning and end of Romans (1:5; 15:18), is complete when Paul offers the gentiles as a sacrifice to God at the completion of his work.

Paul’s presentation of a blameless church is also suggested by his use of paristēmi (to present someone), which can be either a technical term for presenting a sacrifice (cf. Rom. 12:1) or a legal term for presenting someone to a judge.65

According to 2 Corinthians, The one who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us also and present [bring into his presence, NRSV] us with you (2 Cor. 4:14 AT) in the future. Paul is the father of the bride who betrothed his daughter and now protects his daughter in order that he may present her as a pure virgin to Christ (2 Cor. 11:2). Thus the final day is a time when a pure church will be presented to Christ.

Paul describes this completed task as his boast (kauchēsis, Rom. 15:17), a term that he employs frequently in describing his mission, along with the related term kauchēma, which is used for describing what one is proud of. In 2 Corinthians, his boast (kauchēsis) is that he has acted with integrity and sincerity (2 Cor. 1:12), and his goal is that the church will be his boast (kauchēma) and he will be theirs at the day of Christ (2 Cor. 1:14). Similarly, when he declares in Philippians his goal that the church be blameless and without blemish (Phil. 2:15 AT), he adds, It is by your holding fast to the word of life that I can boast on the day of Christ that I did not run or labor in vain (Phil. 2:16). This boasting is the equivalent of exultation and joy (Rom. 5:1, 10–11; 2 Cor. 7:4; 1 Thess. 2:19; cf. Phil. 4:1), especially the pride one takes in others. Paul boasts about his converts in the present (2 Cor. 7:4, 14–15, 16; 9:2), and he hopes that they will be his pride and joy at the end.

Despite Paul’s hope that God will complete his work at the end (Phil. 1:6) and that his community will be his boast at the day of Christ, he considers the possibility that he will have run . . . in vain (Phil. 2:16), a concern that he expresses frequently in the letters (cf. Gal. 2:2; 4:11; 1 Thess. 3:5). He therefore challenges the Corinthians not to receive the grace of God in vain (2 Cor. 6:1 NASB). Paul’s language echoes the words of the servant in Isaiah 49:4, who says, I have labored in vain. Thus, when Paul declares, I fear that I have labored in vain (Gal. 4:11 AT) and "I can boast . . .