The Last White Rose

PART 1

Henry VII and the

White Rose

1

Autumn 1485:

‘this woeful season’

‘The King was green in his estate; and contrary to his own opinion and desert both, was not without much hatred throughout the realm. The root of all was the discountenancing of the house of York, which the general body of the realm still affected.’

Sir Francis Bacon, The History of the Reign of

King Henry VII1

On 23 August 1485, John Sponer, sergeant to the mace, galloped into York. A trusted official whom the city had sent to join the royal army and help the king put down a rebellion, he brought astounding news. Yesterday, ‘King Richard, late mercifully reigning over us … with many other lords and nobles of these North parts was piteously slain and murdered, to the great heaviness of this city,’ the council recorded in their House Book. Horrified, the aldermen wrote a letter to the Earl of Northumberland, the greatest man in the North, asking his advice about what they should do ‘at this woeful season’.2

The incident shows the entire country’s bewilderment. Although Richard III’s reign had been troubled by plots and rebellions, and he was disliked for deposing his little nephew, his head was on the coinage and he was accepted by most people as their king. A veteran commander, he had ridden out at the head of a large, well-equipped army that included the realm’s leading magnates, against a small-scale rising by the unknown Henry Tudor that he should have crushed without any difficulty. News of his death must have come as a severe shock to the vast majority of his subjects.

Like anyone else in England of any standing, the aldermen of York had read Richard’s recent proclamation against ‘Henry Tydder’, pretender to the throne, ‘whereunto he hath [in] no manner interest, right title or colour, as every man well knoweth, for he is descended of bastard blood, both of father side and of mother side’. Among the rebels and traitors who supported Henry, adds the proclamation, ‘many be known for open murderers, avouterers [adulterers] and extortioners … every true and natural Englishman born must lay to his hands for his own surety and weal’.3 Yet the ‘rebels and traitors’ had won.

After King Richard’s defeat, his surviving followers, save for a few key henchmen, simply rode off the battlefield unharmed and went home. Elsewhere, some of them refused to accept the change of regime, including 200 troops in the garrison at Calais who, along with one of their captains, Thomas David, marched up to ‘Burgundy’ – in those days a name for Flanders – and joined the Habsburg army (until the next century, there would be plenty of Yorkists at Calais). So did men from the tiny garrison on Jersey, under the governor Sir Richard Harleston, a former yeoman of the chamber to King Edward IV.

Even so, despite their astonishment, most Englishmen made a show of welcoming their hitherto unknown but now ‘undoubted sovereign liege lord’. When Henry VII reached London on 3 September, he was met at Shoreditch by the lord mayor and the aldermen, with liverymen from seventy City companies – mercers, grocers, drapers, fishmongers, haberdashers, down to hatters and pouch-makers – 435 of them in gowns of scarlet and ‘bright murrey’ (mulberry), not to mention the fifty swordsmen of the mayor’s bodyguard or the twenty armed servants guarding the sheriffs, each one in gowns of tawny, or the trumpeters who sounded a greeting.4 Everybody kissed the new ruler’s hand. Then he was escorted to St Paul’s Cathedral to offer up the three standards under which he had fought (St George, the Red Dragon of Cadwallader and the Dun Cow). A great Mass of thanksgiving was celebrated, with ostentatiously joyful clerics at the high altar, and the singing of the Te Deum. There were pageants in the main thoroughfares, similar to those that had greeted Richard III’s accession.

Unfortunately, the ‘sweating sickness’ – a lethal new disease brought over from France by Henry’s troops – broke out, killing both the lord mayor and his successor. So deadly was this disease that a man healthy in the morning might be dead by evening. Polydore Vergil (who caught the sickness himself) believed it was an omen ‘that Henry should only reign by the sweat of his brow, as turned out to be the case’.5 An inauspicious start to the reign, it delayed the coronation. However, on 30 October 1485 Henry was crowned in Westminster Abbey by Cardinal Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, who, just over two years before, had performed the same service for Richard. On 7 November Henry VII held his first Parliament.

Warmly supported by MPs and peers, the Speaker of the House of Commons urged the new king to marry the lady Elizabeth, Edward IV’s eldest daughter, whom his predecessor had contemplated marrying because of her dynastic significance even though she was his niece. Henry graciously assented, the wedding taking place on 23 January 1486. In theory it could be argued that his claim to the throne was twofold. Heir of Lancaster, he had married the heiress of York. Soon, court poets were writing songs about the union of the Red Rose and the White. Illuminators created the charming Tudor Rose of two colours as a decoration for their manuscripts, while chroniclers extolled the marriage for ensuring continuity with England’s ancient monarchs.

Parliament passed an Act which declared that the crown should ‘rest, remain and abide in the most Royal person of our now Sovereign Lord King Harry the VIIth and in the heirs of his body’.6 Yet everybody knew that for years, Parliament had been legalizing new occupants after a previous incumbent’s overthrow – Edward IV in 1461, Henry VI in 1470, Edward IV in 1471 and Richard III in 1483. How long would it be before another Parliament did so again? Nobody can have been more aware of this possibility than Henry Tudor.

The vast majority of Englishmen did not know what to make of the situation. King Richard had made a point of stressing that his rival was just an unknown Welshman whom he had never laid eyes on and whose father he had never even heard of – which was quite true. Henry’s claim to be the heir of Lancaster was barely plausible. No doubt, through his mother, he was heir to the Beaufort Dukes of Somerset (descendants of John of Gaunt and his mistress Catherine Swynford), if not heir to their titles. But the Somersets’ right to inherit the throne had been specifically denied by Parliament.

As for Henry’s male-line descent, it was unquestionably that of a parvenu. His great-grandfather had been a bastard and the Bishop of Bangor’s butler. The Tudors’ membership of the ruling class was very recent indeed, having begun with the clandestine marriage of the new king’s grandfather, Owain Tudor, to Henry V’s widow, Catherine of France, by whom he had been employed as Clerk of the Wardrobe. If half Beaufort and a quarter Valois, Henry possessed precious little of the ‘old blood royal of England’.

Elizabeth of York could add nothing to Henry’s title: only their children would benefit from her Plantagenet blood. During the previous year she had been bastardized by an Act of Parliament, although this was hastily repealed in November 1485. And while she might be King Edward’s daughter, she was one of several – each an heiress who could also pass on the precious Plantagenet blood.

The new dynasty had one great asset, however, namely Henry himself. Few men could have persuaded such ill-assorted followers to join him in so desperate a gamble as the expedition of 1485, and held them together on the march to Bosworth. If he lacked the magnificent physical presence and overwhelming personality of Edward IV, Henry could summon up considerable charm. The chronicler Polydore Vergil, who met him in his forties, says ‘he was good looking with a cheerful face, particularly when speaking’.7 The most impressive image we have is Pietro Torrigiano’s bust of 1508–9 in the Victoria and Albert Museum – although, admittedly, this is deliberately flattering – while the profile on his new shilling coin of 1489 hints at a genuinely regal appearance. Intelligent, decisive, iron-willed, he was a natural statesman and politician, who seldom made a mistake in choosing ministers – with one alarming exception. His foreign policy became as successful as his domestic policy, much admired by other European rulers.

Yet his task during his first years on the throne was a fearsome one. Since boyhood he had been a hunted exile, whom the Yorkists had sought to eliminate as the last possible Lancastrian claimant. At twenty-eight, he knew little about England and its people. A quarter Welsh (he was christened Owain but his mother insisted on the name being changed), he was brought up in Wales until he was fourteen, since when he had been a fugitive in Brittany without English friends or servants, so that his first language was, of necessity, French. Only in 1483 had English refugees begun to join him. From the start he distrusted the upper nobility because they were too powerful and, not having grown up among the great of the land, he was daunted by them. Instead, he relied on advisers who had supported him in exile, none of them born to a peerage apart from the Earl of Oxford. They included Cardinal Morton, Bishop Fox, Sir Reginald Bray, Lord Daubeney and Lord Willoughby de Broke – the last two made peers by Henry. Henry never ceased to fear magnates, who might one day decide to support some Yorkist rival.

Secretly, no one can have felt more insecure. Henry knew he was on the throne because he had won at Bosworth, not by right of inheritance. Ousting the Plantagenets, who had governed England since 1154, he could not hope to avoid an aura of illegitimacy – of being a legalized usurper. In any case, he was unknown to all save a few of his subjects.

There were many people with a better claim to wear the crown. The most obvious was the ten-year-old Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick – son of the Duke of Clarence, Edward IV’s brother. After the death of his own son in 1484, Richard III briefly recognized him as his heir, but then set him aside in favour of another nephew. This was John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who was about twenty-two in 1485, the son of Richard’s sister the Duchess of Suffolk. While there is no direct documentary evidence, it is almost certain that Lincoln had been publicly acknowledged as heir to the throne.

On the day after Bosworth Henry had sent a trusted follower to remove the young Earl of Warwick from Sheriff Hutton and bring him to London, to be confined in the Tower – as his cousin Edward V had been. As for the Earl of Lincoln, the king took a calculated risk in letting him stay at liberty, and (despite having fought for Richard at Bosworth) Lincoln appeared to accept Henry as his sovereign, riding in procession at his coronation. But the new king took no chances with Warwick: if he managed to reach his aunt in Flanders, a Yorkist restoration would be very much on the cards. So many men had served his father and then the boy himself on their vast estates in the west Midlands that they might be able to rally the whole country to his cause.8 Despite being shut up in the Tower of London, closely guarded day and night, the boy was a magnet for Yorkists.

Undoubtedly, Henry possessed one or two excellent ministers in Sir Reginald Bray, Cardinal Morton and Bishop Richard Fox – ‘vigilant men, and secret, and such as kept watch with him almost upon all men’.9 There was also his lord chamberlain, Sir William Stanley, who had won Bosworth and the crown for him by changing sides, and numerous less able, if dependable, figures such as the newly honoured Lord Daubeney.

But many of his apparent supporters could not be relied upon. Discontented Yorkists, they had only fought for him because they hated the late king. At the same time, his victory meant that a large group of Ricardian loyalists were deprived of lucrative posts or forced to hand back estates, such as all the Northerners whom Richard had rewarded with lands and offices in the South. Soon they began to show their hand in Yorkshire under assumed names – Robin of Redesdale, Jack Straw, Tom a’ Linn, Master Amend-All – stirring up riots in collusion with Scots raiders. Even when the riots were put down, the disaffection remained. Throughout England, especially in the Northern counties, there were people who, if not yet ready to revolt, felt much the same as the Yorkshiremen.

2

Easter 1486:

Lord Lovell and the

Stafford Brothers

‘[T]he old humour of those countries, where the memory of King Richard was so strong, that it lay like lees at the bottom of men’s hearts; and if the vessel was but stirred, it would come up.’

Sir Francis Bacon, The History of the Reign of

King Henry VII1

Living, walking monuments to Henry VII’s sense of insecurity still exist: the Yeomen of the Guard. First raised in October 1485 as fifty archers to protect him at his coronation, these were soon transformed into men-at-arms and their strength increased to two hundred. Crack troops recruited from veterans who had been with the king in France and fought for him at Bosworth, their principal job was to mount guard every day and deter assassins – the traditional Knights and Squires of the Body being thought insufficient for the task – although in the absence of a standing army the Yeomen also fought as an elite unit. It quickly became apparent that Henry needed them.

In a letter dated 18 December, just after Parliament had risen, Thomas Betanson informed Sir Robert Plumpton that there was an uneasy mood in London. A number of Yorkist lords and gentlemen, Richard’s committed followers, had just been attainted by an Act that outlawed them, together with their families, confiscating their estates – men such as the Earl of Surrey, Lord Lovell and Lord Zouche. Although several MPs opposed the Act, the king insisted on it. There was talk in the city of war breaking out again: no one could say who was going to start it, but on the whole people thought it would be either the Northerners or the Welsh. Betanson adds, ‘There is much running among the lords, but no man wot [knows] what it is: it is said it is not well among them.’2

Henry’s most dangerous opponent was Francis, Viscount Lovell, who had been among his predecessor’s staunchest supporters. At first believed to have fallen at Bosworth, according to a letter written by Henry soon after the battle, he had managed to escape and find sanctuary. A boyhood companion of the young Duke of Gloucester, during Richard’s reign he had been chamberlain of the royal household and virtually the second-most-important man in the kingdom. Until now he had been a magnate not just of high standing and ancient blood – he was the seventh Lord Lovell as well as the second viscount – but one of enormous wealth, even before receiving lavish rewards from Richard. Some idea of how rich he was can be gained by walking around the ruins of his beautiful house at Minster Lovell in Oxfordshire, in woodland on the banks of the River Windrush, where he had been visited by his late master on at least one occasion.

After Bosworth, Lovell had made for East Anglia, hoping to go abroad. Failing to find a boat, he took sanctuary in the Benedictine abbey at Colchester. ‘Sanctuary rights’ gave a fugitive immunity from arrest for forty days, after which he must leave the kingdom. During the recent wars many had saved their lives in this way, although sometimes they were dragged out and executed, as happened to the Lancastrian leaders after their defeat at Tewkesbury in 1471. Remembering the widespread disgust caused by this vicious breach of legality, in which several of his cousins lost their lives, even when the forty days had elapsed King Henry made no attempt to remove Lovell from the abbey.

Also in sanctuary at the abbey were two more of the late king’s supporters who had fought at Bosworth, Sir Humphrey Stafford and his younger brother Thomas. Well known in his county, Humphrey, who was to be attainted with Lord Lovell in December 14853, owned the valuable manor of Grafton in Worcestershire (near Tewkesbury and the River Severn) besides other big estates, including Blatherwycke in Northamptonshire. Fifty-nine but still hale and hearty, he had been MP for Worcestershire and high sheriff as well as MP for Warwickshire. For most of his life he had shown himself not so much a Yorkist as an enemy of the Harcourts, a powerful Lancastrian family who were his neighbours in Northamptonshire. Sir Richard Harcourt had murdered Humphrey’s father in 1448, to be murdered in turn, during an affray, by Humphrey’s half-brother, the Bastard of Grafton. But in 1483, during the Duke of Buckingham’s rebellion, Sir Humphrey had held the fords of the rain-swollen Severn against Buckingham’s followers, earning King Richard’s gratitude.

Locally, Humphrey had a name as a ruthless thug who was always ready to break the law. In a petition presented during the Parliament of November 1485 some Stafford cousins complained how, with ‘great might and strength’ (meaning a large body of armed men), he had seized their estates and kept possession of them because he was ‘in such favour and conceit with Richard, late in deed and not of right, king of England’. Henry granted their petition that the manors should not be included among those forfeited in Sir Humphrey’s attainder.4

The three fugitives knew their one chance of rebuilding their fortunes was to replace Henry with the Earl of Warwick. They decided that in the spring of 1486, shortly before the king visited York, Lovell should break out of sanctuary, assemble a small force and kill Henry – helpers would be easy enough to find in a city where Richard had been so popular. Lovell would then proclaim Warwick king, and raise all Yorkshire in support. Meanwhile, the Stafford brothers were to rally the Yorkists of the West Midlands, where Warwick owned large estates, and then bring troops north to reinforce Lovell. While everything depended on liquidating Henry, the plan did at least have the advantage of surprise – no one expected a coup d’état from three men who were cooped up in sanctuary.5

Towards the middle of March Henry VII left London, riding north by way of Waltham, Cambridge, Huntingdon and Lincoln. He kept Holy Week at Lincoln – washing the feet of twenty-nine poor men in the cathedral, as he was twenty-nine years of age – where Sir Reginald Bray warned him that Lovell was going to leave sanctuary and was planning serious mischief. Henry immediately summoned Bray’s informant, a Hugh Conway who had fought for him at Bosworth, but did not believe the story. ‘I affirmed all to be true, as my said friend had showed, and the king said that it could not be so,’ recalled Conway.6 He grew angry when Conway refused to reveal the name of his friend, were he ‘to be drawn with wild horses’. While they were still at Lincoln, news came that Lovell and the Staffords had escaped from Colchester and no one knew where they had gone. However, for the moment Henry remained unconcerned, riding on to Nottingham.

But when the king reached York he heard rumours of a revolt in the North Riding. Under the name of ‘Robin of Redesdale’, an unidentified Yorkist was raising support in an area around Ripon and Middleham that had been closely associated with Richard III. The rumours were confirmed, followed by a report that Lord Lovell was marching on York. Vergil says Henry was horrified – ‘struck with great fear’ – as he had neither an army nor weapons for his retinue, while it seemed unlikely he would be able to raise an adequate force in a city so well known for its devotion to King Richard.

Aware that he must act quickly, before Lovell’s army grew any larger, Henry sent his ill-equipped retinue against the enemy, including the Knights of the Body and the Yeomen of the Guard, under his uncle Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford. According to Vergil, most of them ‘armoured themselves in leather’, meaning they bought padded deerskin jerkins (the poor man’s armour) from the locals. He also sent heralds, promsing a pardon to any rebel, except for the leaders, who laid down his arms. The heralds won over so many men that Lovell lost his nerve and fled during the night.7 However, still hoping for a chance to ambush the king, he took a band of reliable followers with him.

Meanwhile, reports that King Henry was in danger spread all over Yorkshire, with the result that local landowners came to York to offer their services. Somewhat improbably, in view of its former fervent loyalty to Richard, he is said to have been received in the Northern capital with great enthusiasm and elaborate pageants, the crowds shouting, ‘King Henry! King Henry! God preserve that sweet and well-savoured face’.

Even so, Lord Lovell regained his nerve. On 23 April, St George’s Day, he very nearly succeeded in killing the king at York when he was celebrating the feast of St George. Although no proper account survives, the attack was made either at High Mass in the Minster, or afterwards when Henry was dining in state in the Archbishop’s Great Hall with his court, including the earls of Lincoln, Rivers and Wiltshire. It looks as if he had a narrow escape. According to one source, the Earl of Northumberland personally saved Henry’s life, which means that someone tried to assassinate him.8 More than one man was involved, since the earl caught several people, whom he hanged on the spot.9 This had been the first attempt on Henry’s life since Bosworth.

Yet the king was not too alarmed. In the words of Francis Bacon (echoing Vergil), Henry thought the rising was ‘but a rag or remnant of Bosworth Field, and had nothing in it of the main party of the House of York’. Vergil and Bacon stress that Henry was not so much nervous about these particular rebels as worried he might not be able to raise a dependable force in Northern England if a really serious rising broke out in the region, ‘for that he was in a core of people, whose affections he suspected’.10 It was impossible to estimate how much pro-Yorkist feeling had been stirred up.

Shrewdly judged promises of pardon caused the rebellion to disintegrate everywhere else in Yorkshire. Giving up hope, Lord Lovell fled across the Pennines by night, taking refuge on the coast of what was then northern Lancashire and is now Cumbria. There he found temporary shelter at the house of Sir Thomas Broughton of Broughton Tower – a peel tower built as a defence against Scottish raids – on Furness Fells in Broughton-in-Furness. Sir Thomas had been given confiscated estates in Devon and Cornwall by King Richard in 1484, but was forced by the new king to return them to their owners. He was another Yorkist diehard who remained loyal to Richard’s memory, had been involved in the recent revolt and, with his Cumberland neighbour Sir John Huddleston, had held out for some time.

In the meantime, Sir Humphrey had set to work in Worcestershire. He overcame the problem of having been outlawed in the recent Parliament by claiming King Henry had pardoned him, producing forged ‘letters patent’ that rescinded his attainder. Clearly, he had plenty of friends in Worcestershire, such as Richard Oseney, to whom he sent a message, asking to meet him – presumably well armed – at Kidderminster in the north-west of the county. Another friend was Ralph Botery, who in his indictment was later to be accused, among other charges, of giving Stafford a brace of pheasants ‘on account of the love that he then bore towards him’. Humphrey’s bastard son, John Stafford, joined in the rising with enthusiasm, stealing horses from the king’s close at Upton-on-Severn.

Humphrey assembled several hundred men, with whom he stormed into Worcester, raising the cry ‘A Warwick! A Warwick!’, and briefly took over the city. Later, the municipal authorities were charged with failing to post a proper guard at the gates, the implication being that they had been deliberately negligent. Stafford quickly put about inflammatory rumours – Henry Tudor had been captured by Lord Lovell in Yorkshire, while the Earl of Warwick had been freed from captivity on the isle of Guernsey and, having crossed to England, was riding north to join Lovell. The rising spread into neighbouring Warwickshire and Herefordshire – at the small towns of Warwick and Birmingham, Stafford’s supporters ran through the streets shouting ‘A Warwick!’. Obviously, there was plenty of grass-roots support for the earl in the west Midlands.

Meanwhile, riots broke out in London, culminating with a rally at Westminster on 5 May. Most of the emblems on the mob’s banners were ploughs, rooks, shoes and woolsacks, but one bore the Bear and Ragged Staff – Warwick’s badge. Carrying weapons, they marched to Highbury in Islington where they clashed with the ‘king’s lieges’ sent to disperse them.11 Although they were demonstrating in support of the Plantagenet in the Tower, prompted by reports of the risings by Lord Lovell and the Staffords, no one was tried for treason because nobody of importance was involved and Henry’s policy was one of leniency for the masses – his regime was too fragile for him to risk butchering ordinary folk.

News came of Lovell’s failure, however, and the Worcestershire rising collapsed, forcing the Staffords to flee for their lives. Their first hiding place, an area of deep woodland near Bewdley, was soon surrounded by 400 men led by Thomas Cokesey, who had a commission from the king to arrest them. However, although he searched the woods thoroughly, he had to report that ‘as yet we cannot get him nor hear where he is’. In fact, the brothers had been warned of Cokesey’s approach by a neighbour, Sir Richard Burdett, who was afterwards charged with aiding and abetting their escape.

Despite Henry’s pretence of being unconcerned, the best-informed chronicler of the period, Polydore Vergil, heard that he had been badly scared. He used carefully calculated leniency in dealing with the Midlands rebels, after twenty were tried and found guilty at Warwick and Birmingham, to the extent of intervening in the process of the law.

John Colard of Feckenham in Worcestershire had been indicted for treason, his lands, goods and chattels being granted to his accuser, Thomas Tolhoth. Petitioning the king for a pardon on 14 May, Colard said that, while visiting Bromsgrove on market day, he had happened to meet ‘Humphrey Stafford, now your rebel, which long before that time was no good master nor well-willer unto him’, and because of rumours that Stafford had obtained a royal pardon, and because everybody else was doing so, ‘more for dread than love’ he had welcomed him, before going home. Although blameless, he had then been accused of treason ‘by certain persons of malice and evil will’. Henry granted the petition, despite a protest by Tolhoth that ‘sinister labour’ had been used to persuade the authorities of Colard’s innocence.12

After ‘lurking for a time with Sir Thomas Broughton’, as Bacon puts it, in May Lord Lovell made his way south. A hunted man, to avoid attention he must have ridden along lonely paths, often by night, avoiding towns. Once again, the former lord chamberlain hoped to find a boat across the sea. On 19 May 1486 the Countess of Oxford, the wife of one of Henry’s right-hand men, wrote to John Paston, warning him that ‘I am credibly informed that Francis, late Lord Lovell, is now of late resorted into the Isle of Ely, to the intent by all likelihood, to find the ways and means to get him shipping and passages in your coasts, or else to resort again to sanctuary.’13

Big rewards must have been offered for his capture and rigorous searches made, but the authorities were unable to lay hands on Lovell. They did not realize he had moved from Cambridgeshire into Suffolk, almost certainly given shelter by the de la Poles. The head of the family, the Duke of Suffolk, was married to Richard III’s sister Elizabeth Plantagenet, whose sympathies lay with the fugitive.

The Staffords were not so lucky. Avoiding capture, they had fled from Worcestershire to Culham in Berkshire, ‘a certain obscure sanctuary betwixt Oxford and Abingdon’.14 Here, the abbey of Abingdon, two miles to the north, possessed a church with long-established sanctuary rights. Why the Staffords chose this particular place for a refuge only became apparent much later on, but they arrived there on 11 May. The king was taking no chances, however, and two days later they were forcibly removed at night by sixty armed men under Sir John Savage. No doubt there were protests from the monk in charge, and as soon as the abbot heard of it he sent a written complaint to the authorities about this outrageous infringement of his abbey’s ancient privilege.

On 20 June Sir Humphrey appeared before the court of King’s Bench, pleading that he had every right to be returned to sanctuary. Accordingly, he was assigned counsel and, much to the king’s displeasure, the case was adjourned for eight days, so that the Abbot of Abingdon, Dan (as monks were styled then) John Sant, could be summoned to give evidence. Before the trial could resume, Henry tried to make the judges give him their opinion on whether or not Stafford had a good case. They refused. ‘It is not good for us to argue the matter and give our opinions before it has come before us judicially,’ was their answer. The king was so concerned that Chief Justice Hussey had to go before him and personally beseech his forgiveness. Even so, Henry had to wait.15

When the case came up again, Abbot Sant argued eloquently that the prisoners should be returned to Culham. He had a fairly good case in law, being able to cite charters in the abbey’s possession by which an eighth-century king of Mercia had bestowed on fugitives from justice the inalienable right to seek refuge in the parish church. Although these charters were in fact thirteenth-century forgeries, they were accepted as genuine by the lawyers of the day.

Regardless of Sant’s evidence, however, the judges decided that sanctuary could no longer be pleaded in cases of high treason, and on 5 July Sir Humphrey was condemned to the statutory death of a traitor. Three days later he was hanged but cut down before he was dead, then castrated and disembowelled while still alive, his guts being burned in front of him, after which he was beheaded and quartered. His head was tarred and set up on a spike over London Bridge, his body receiving similar treatment, although the tarred quarters were displayed at towns where he was well known – presumably in the West Midlands. Thomas Stafford was pardoned, on the grounds that he had been misled by his elder brother, but lost most of his property. It was still less than a year since Bosworth.

Yet even after Henry’s countermeasures, Sir Thomas Broughton and Sir John Huddleston of Millom still held out in the North Country with other men who had fought for King Richard at Bosworth. Broughton was especially dangerous. Not only did he own very large estates, but he had unusually widespread influence all over Lancashire and Cumberland, and could rely on help from many important friends. He was hard to keep under surveillance as he was able to hide behind the separate legal jurisdiction of the Duchy of Lancaster, administered by neighbours who were well disposed towards him.

The king cut his way through this legal jungle with a proclamation in July 1486 that accused Sir Thomas, with other Northern gentlemen and yeomen, of ‘great rebellions and grave offences … against the most royal person of our sovereign lord Henry VII’, of hiding in secret places and ignoring numerous royal letters and commands. It ordered those named to present themselves in person to the king within forty days; otherwise they would be proclaimed ‘great rebels, enemies and traitors, and so forfeit their lives, lands and goods at the pleasure of our sovereign lord’.16 They came to heel, presenting themselves within the time stipulated and taking an oath of allegiance, after which they received letters of pardon. Yet neither their submission nor their oath meant that they were reconciled to the new regime.

The proclamation excluded five people from any hope of pardon: Geoffrey Franke, Edward (or Edmund) Franke, John Ward, Thomas Oter and Richard Middylton ‘otherwise called Dyk Middylton’. All had fought for King Richard at Bosworth. Their exclusion meant they had been identified as irreconcilable diehards.

Another Lancashireman whose loyalty was very suspect was Sir James Harrington of Hornby Castle. For the moment, however, it was not quite clear whether his unruliness was due to Yorkist principles or a long-running feud with the Stanley family who coveted his estates. What made him especially dangerous was the sheer number of his kindred – there were well-endowed Harringtons all over the county.

As Thomas Betanson had predicted in his letter to Sir Robert Plumpton, some sort of Yorkist rebellion had also broken out in Wales, although no details survive. We do know, however, that Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, had been sent there in February 1486, presumably to guard against a rising. The other evidence is that in October Thomas Acton was rewarded with a substantial property in Herefordshire, confiscated from a Thomas Hunteley because of ‘his adherence to the rebels in Wales’.17

In January 1487, Lord Lovell at last found a boat whose skipper was ready to take him secretly across the North Sea, a vessel no doubt provided by the de la Poles. It was not the safest time of year for such a voyage, but he succeeded in reaching ‘Burgundy’. Here, at Malines, as the late king’s most loyal friend, he received a warm welcome from the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, who was Richard III’s sister: Henry Tudor’s implacable enemy, Margaret of York was delighted to learn from Lovell that there was opposition to the new regime in many