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    Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985
    Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985
    Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985
    Ebook451 pages3 hours

    Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985

    By Tom Cooper and Albert Grandolini

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    Between 1973 and 1989, various Western powers and Libya were entangled in a seemingly never-ending exchange of blows. Supposedly launched in retaliation for one action or the other, this confrontation resulted in a number of high-profile, even though low-scale, clashes between the Libyan Arab Air Force (LAAF), the US Navy and even the French. Meanwhile, almost as a sideshow, the LAAF - quantitatively one of the most potent air forces in North Africa and the Middle East - also saw intensive deployment in Chad. Initially, with sporadic fighting between different parties for the control of N'Djamena, the Chadian capital, this conflict eventually turned into a major war when Libya invaded the country outright. The LAAF deployed not only French-made Mirage but also Soviet-made fighter-bombers of MiG and Sukhoi design, Mil-designed helicopters and even bombers of Tupolev design, to establish her dominance over the extensive battlefield of the Sahara Desert.

    Because of the Cold War but also due to confrontation with Libya over a number of other issues, France - a one-time major arms supplier to Libya - and the USA gradually got dragged into the war. Deployments of their troops and intelligence services in Chad, Egypt and the Sudan never resulted in a full-scale war against Libya, but time and again culminated in small-scale aerial operations that proved crucial to developments on the ground, several of which are still a matter of extensive debate.

    Detailing not only the aerial operations but the ground war and the geopolitical background of these conflicts, and illustrated with over 100 contemporary photographs, maps and all-new color profiles, this volume provides a unique insight into an otherwise completely forgotten conflict that raged from the skies over the southern Mediterranean to southern Chad and northern Sudan, yet one that not only represented a formative period of the LAAF, but which also prompted a number of crucial modifications and developments in France and the USA.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherHelion and Company
    Release dateJan 19, 2015
    ISBN9781910777510
    Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985
    Author

    Tom Cooper

    Tom Cooper is an Austrian aerial warfare analyst and historian. Following a career in worldwide transportation business – during which he established a network of contacts in the Middle East and Africa – he moved into narrow-focus analysis and writing on small, little-known air forces and conflicts, about which he has collected extensive archives. This has resulted in specialization in such Middle Eastern air forces as of those of Egypt, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, plus various African and Asian air forces. Except for authoring and co-authoring more than 30 books - including about a dozen of titles for Helion’s @War series - and over 1000 articles, Cooper is a regular correspondent for multiple defense-related publications.

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      Book preview

      Libyan Air Wars - Tom Cooper

      CHAPTER 1

      BACKGROUND

      In this age when the ‘Global War on Terror’, ‘Spread of Islamic extremism’ and many related conflicts around the World, especially in Africa, dominate the headlines, few might recall the times when it was another ‘war of terror’ that was in the news almost every day. Even less so since the so-called ‘Arab Spring’, which reached its first peak with a popular uprising in Libya, in spring 2011, culminated in a lengthy intervention by forces of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the collapse of the regime of Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi, who ruled the country for no less than 42 years.¹ It is practically forgotten that the first recorded event of air warfare in history took place in the skies over Libya. This happened on 1 November 1911, when Italian military pilot Lt Giulio Gavotti flew the first ‘mass-produced’ military aircraft ever to attack Turkish positions.

      Air power was to drop many more bombs upon Libya during the following 100 years, but quite a few bombs were to be dropped by Libyan aircraft upon other countries too. Between 1973 and 1989, various Western powers and Libya were entangled in a seemingly never-ending exchange of blows launched in retaliation for one action or the other. This confrontation resulted in a number of high-profile, even though low-scale, clashes between the Libyan Arab Air Force (LAAF), the US Navy (USN), and even the French Air Force (Armée de l’Air, AdA). The LAAF, quantitatively one of most potent air forces in North Africa and the Middle East in the 1970s and 1980, also saw intensive deployment in Chad. Initially characterised by small scale insurgency for the control of N’Djamena, the Chadian capital, this conflict eventually turned into a major war when Libya invaded the country outright. The LAAF deployed not only French-made Mirages, but also Soviet-made MiG and Sukoi fighter-bombers, Mil helicopters and even Tupolev bombers, to establish her dominance over the extensive battlefield of the Sahara Desert. Because of the Cold War, but also due to confrontation with Libya over a number of other issues, France, a one-time major arms supplier to Libya, and the USA gradually got dragged into that war. Deployments of their troops and intelligence services in Chad, Egypt and the Sudan never resulted in a full-scale war against Libya, but time and again it culminated in small-scale aerial operations that proved crucial to developments on the ground, several of which are still a matter of extensive debate. Often related to issues relevant well away from Libyan borders and airspace, most of the air wars in question were never officially declared and of rather limited duration, primarily consisting of a handful of low-intensity clashes. Some were as a result of covert activities of intelligence agencies, but others resulted in full-scale battles that lasted for days, sometimes even weeks and months.

      The authors grew up reading news about this conflict on an almost daily basis during the 1980s. Over the years, the ‘hobby’ of researching related details and the geopolitical backgrounds transpired into a profession of military aviation journalism, which resulted in this book. The story it reveals is not only the story of air wars fought over and by Libya, but also that of the pilots of many other nationalities that participated in them, and about their often rather troublesome equipment.

      Our hope is that the results of our work are going to provide a unique insight into this almost forgotten conflict. An air war that raged from the skies over the southern Mediterranean to southern Chad and northern Sudan, represented a formative period of the LAAF, but which also prompted a number of crucial modifications and developments in France and the USA. Indeed, while small in scale, many of the campaigns in question served as testing grounds for modern-day doctrine, tactics and technology of air power.

      Simple Geography and a Turbulent History

      Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, and seventeenth largest on the world. Clockwise, it borders Egypt in the east, Sudan, Chad, and Niger in the south, and Algeria and Tunisia in the west. Most of the terrain is characterised by extensive deserts, sand seas, extreme heat and aridity. There are no major rivers and less than 2% of the national territory receives enough rainfall for settled agriculture. The handbook entitled Der Soldat in Libyen, distributed to German soldiers deployed in the country with the Deutsches Africa Korps in February 1941, described the local terrain as follows:

      Libya as a whole is a desert plateau, gradually dissolved by steep, rocky terrain and individual high surfaces. Scattered plump mountain massifs up to 1000 metres high are protruding over the completely flat or slightly wavy surfaces … 50 to 100 kilometres inland the steppe zone ends and a completely dead desert begins, consisting not only of sand, but also stone and gravel.

      Indeed, terrain in Libya includes only a few highlands, such as the mountain ranges near the Chadian border, the barren wasteland of the rocky Nafuza Mountains south-west of the capital city of Tripoli, and the Marj Plain with Jebel al-Akhdar (‘Green Mountain’) in Cyrenaica in the east. Vegetation is sparse and usually limited to date palms and olive and orange trees that grow in scattered oases, while wildlife is limited to desert rodents, gazelles, a few wildcats, eagles, hawks and vultures.

      Within easy reach of Europe and with links to North Africa and the Middle East, the area has experienced quite a turbulent history over the last 3,000 years. The name of Libya is a derivative from the appellation given to a Berber tribe by the ancient Egyptians. It was very rarely used before the country’s independence. Nowadays it is used by a country that came into being as an independent and unified state only in the second half of the 20th century, consisting of Tripolitania in the northwest (approximately 16% of the country’s area), Cyrenaica in the east (about 51% of the country’s area), and Fezzan in the southwest (around 33% of the country’s area). Although known to have been inhabitated already some 25,000 years ago, Fezzan was only loosely governed by the Garamentes tribe from about 1,000 years BC. Greeks and Phoenicians began founding colonies on the coast of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in the 7th and 5th centuries BC, before Carthage took over the region. The Egyptians, the Persians, the army of Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies of Egypt all ruled Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, which flourished during the Roman Empire period and even when the Vandals took over in 455. Cyrenaica and Tripolitania maintained their distinct Carthaginian and Greek cultures until their once prosperous cities were racked by political and religious unrest, and degenerated into bleak military outposts. Similarly, Fezzan developed a unique history and identity. Correspondingly, different parts of what was to become Libya have all maintained their own relations with the outside world ever since, resulting in the latent internal disunity that is characteristic of the country today.

      Muhammad Idris as-Senussi and his troops during their raid into Egypt in 1916. (Photo via Mark Lepko)

      In medieval times, Libya, or the parts thereof, continued changing hands. The Byzantinum Empire conquered the area in the 6th century, but lost it to the Arabs under Amr Ibn al-As, who conquered Cyrenaica in 643, Tripolitania in 649, and to Ukba Ibn an-Nafi, who conquered Fezzan in 663. The area was successively ruled by the Umayyads, Fatimids, and a Berber dynasty, before it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th century. Successive waves of Arab armies were followed by settlers that brought Islam, the Arabic language, and Arab culture to the indigenous population along the coast, but the Berbers of the interior resisted for centuries and remained linguistically and culturally separate.

      Under Ottoman rule, a pasha (or ‘regent’) ruled the area from Tripoli, the principal city of Tripolitania, but in 1711 Ahmad Qaramanly, a Turkish-Arab cavalry officer, seized power in Tripoli and founded his own dynasty while acknowledging the Ottoman sultan as his suzerain. Following the ending of local piracy by the United States of America (USA) and European powers in the early 19th century, the economy declined and the area slipped into civil war, enabling the Ottomans to re-establish themselves in power in 1835. It was around this time that Muhammad Ibn Ali as-Senussi, a highly respected Islamic scholar from present-day Algeria, won many followers among the Cyrenaican Bedouins, and this area gradually developed into the centre of a new religious order. By the end of the 19th century, virtually all of the Bedouin in the region had pledged their allegiance to the Senussi brotherhood, and Senussis were subsequently to spearhead the nascent Libyan nationalist movement.

      To the Shores of Tripoli

      Outside circles of naval historians, it is often forgotten that the history of the area nowadays within Libyan borders included a period of military conflict with the then still very young United States of America (USA). The conflicts in question, better known as the First and Second Barbary Wars, were a result of a period during which Tripolitania lapsed into military anarchy due to lack of direction from the Ottoman Empire, in the mid-18th century. The area came under the rule of successive pashas that established themselves in power through coup d’états and then continued to pay a nominal tribute to Istanbul, but otherwise ruled the area as an independent country. In order to improve the ruined economy of their states, pashas in Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis and the independent Sultanate of Morocco began to heavily employ corsairs (pirates) against European merchant shipping underway on crucial shipping routes in the Mediterranean. Alternatively, nations with an interest in protecting their shipping were forced to pay a tribute.

      After the United States’ independence from Great Britain was formalised by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, France ceased protecting US ships underway in the Mediterranean Sea, and a number of these were seized by corsairs. The US government reacted with diplomatic action, but this was only partially successful. While hundreds of American sailors were released from custody in Algiers and Morocco, the USA had to pay a ransom that amounted to nearly one sixth of the entire US federal budget, and was to continue paying an annual tribute to local rulers. Eventually, the US Congress passed naval legislation that, among other things, provided for six frigates in 1801, and US President Thomas Jefferson ordered a small naval task force into the Mediterranean. There were several minor clashes in which its ships defeated some of the Tripolitanian corsairs and, in August 1801, the schooner USS Enterprise defeated a 14-gun polacca Tripoli. However, the frigate USS Philadelphia ran aground while patrolling Tripoli harbour in October 1803 and the crew, including Captain William Bainbridge, was captured.

      Painting ‘To the Shores of Tripoli’ by Raymond Massey, showing the frigate USS Constitution during the second attack on Tripoli on 4 August 1804.

      In February 1804, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a successful raid into Tripoli, in the course of which the captured frigate was destroyed, thus at least recovering the pride of the nascent US Navy. Subsequent attacks on Tripoli were less successful and eventually the Americans organised a force of US Marines, led by 1st Lieutenant Presley O’Bannon and 500 mercenaries, that marched from Alexandria in Egypt to Derna in Cyrenaica. Concerned about this threat, the pasha in Tripoli rushed to sign a treaty with the USA and release all the Americans ‘in his possession’, ending this war in June 1805. Despite this success, the American practice of paying tribute to the pirate states in North Africa ended only with the conclusion of the Second Barbary War (also known as Algerine or Algerian War), fought in 1815–16.

      These two conflicts and their participants were immortalised not only in the second line of the US Marine Corps’ Hymn (‘… to the shores of Tripoli’), but also in many of the traditional names of US Navy warships, including Bainbridge, Constellation, Decatur, Enterprise, Intrepid, Somers, and O’Bannon.

      Schooner USS Enterprise (right) capturing the Tripolitanian polacca Tripoli in August 1801. (Drawing by Capt William Bainbridge Hoff, from circa 1878; US Navy Department)

      In late 1911, Italy invaded Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, forcing the Ottoman Empire to sue for peace and accept the Treaty of Laussanne the following year. Local tribesmen opposed Italian rule and initially were successful in preventing its spread beyond a few enclaves along the coast of Cyrenaica. During World War I, the Senussi first sided with the Central Powers. Encouraged by the German and Ottoman Empires, they launched the so-called Senussi Campaign, but after a disastrous raid into British-occupied Egypt in 1916, they negotiated a truce with the British and Italians, whereupon Rome accepted Muhammad Idris as-Senussi’s hereditary rule in Cyrenaica. Only a few years later, the fascist leader Benito Mussolini opened the Second Italo-Senussi War. The technically superior Italian forces, led by General Badoglio, destroyed Idris’ forces in Tripolitania in 1928 and in Fezzan in 1930. Their campaign in Cyrenaica was concluded only against fierce resistance from Senussi tribesmen, in the course of which the Italians murdered over 24,000 civilians and herded around 100,000 survivors into concentration camps, forcing the others to flee into the desert. In 1934, the area was declared as ‘pacified’ and formally established as an Italian colony under the classical name ‘Libya’. It consisted of four provinces: Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Dernah and the Military District of Fezzan. Marshal of the Regia Aeronautica (RA, Royal Italian Air Force), Italo Balbo, Governor of Libya from 1934 until 1940, then called for the colonisation of Libya and started a policy of integration between the Italians and Libyans, that proved quite successful. Laws were passed that allowed Muslims to be permitted to join the National Fascist Party and created Libyan military units within the Italian Army. The Italians invested considerably in the development of the public sector and the modernisation of agriculture, building nearly 400km of railways and more than 2,000km of roads. With the Italian population increasing to nearly 110,000, Libya was declared a part of metropolitan Italy, on 9 January 1939.²

      Origins of Libyan Military

      During the second half of the 1930s, planning to enlarge Libya to the Aouzou Strip in northern Chad (then a French colony) and establish a broad land bridge between Libya and Italian East Africa, the Italians established two divisions of Libyan colonial troops and a battalion of paratroopers. These included around 31,000 native Muslim soldiers, some of whom were granted ‘special’ Italian citizenship and considered ‘Moslem Italians’. Initially assigned to the Royal Colonial Corps of Libya, these units participated in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1936, where they were highly decorated for their distinguished performance in battle. Later on, the 1st Libyan Infantry Division was incorporated into the reserve of the 10th Italian Army, and the 2nd Libyan Infantry Division into the 13th Corps, and thus they became involved in the Italian invasion of British-occupied Egypt, launched in September 1940. In December of the same year, the British Eighth Army launched a counterattack that not only ended in the conquer of Cyrenaica, but also the destruction of the 10th Italian Army and the capture of most of their Libyan troops. During the following two years, the indigenous population of Libya became pawns in the war, with thousands being killed and most of the scarce infrastructure destroyed by the time Axis troops were forced to retreat into Tunisia in early 1943. Libya finally ended up under British Military Administration, which made use of the former Italian bureaucrats, but also began training the Libyan civil servants and police.

      This also included 600 Senussi fighters who had fled to Egypt after the collapse of the resistance in 1934 whom the British organised into five battalions of the Libyan Arab Forces (LAF) which were deployed inside Libya during late 1942. They saw little fighting: instead they were primarily tasked with securing camps for German and Italian Prisoners of War (PoWs). The LAF was dissolved immediately after the war, but most of its members subsequently joined the British-established Libyan Police.

      Meanwhile, British interests in Libya came into conflict with those of the French and the Soviet Union. Namely, in 1942, the Free French moved north from Chad (with British approval) and occupied Fezzan, subsequently attaching some parts of it to the French military regions of southern Algeria and southern Tunisia. Moscow, which at the Potsdam Conference in 1945 agreed that the Italian colonies seized during the war should not be returned, subsequently proposed separate provincial trusteeships and began claiming Tripolitania for itself while

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