After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism: Taking Back a Revolution

AFTER THE RISE AND STALL OF AMERICAN FEMINISM

TAKING BACK A REVOLUTION

LYNN S. CHANCER

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

STANFORD, CALIFORNIA

Stanford University Press

Stanford, California

©2019 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University.

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press.

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Chancer, Lynn S., author.

Title: After the rise and stall of American feminism : taking back a revolution / Lynn S. Chancer.

Description: Stanford, California : Stanford University Press, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018041925 (print) | LCCN 2018043464 (ebook) | ISBN 9781503607439 (e-book) | ISBN 9780804774376 (cloth : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Feminism—United States. | Women’s rights—United States.

Classification: LCC HQ1421 (ebook) | LCC HQ1421 .C465 2019 (print) | DDC 305.420973—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018041925

Designed by Bruce Lundquist

Typeset by Classic Typography in 10.75/15 Minion Pro

Cover design by Angela Moody

ADVANCE PRAISE

"In this sweeping, unflinching account, After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism tackles the paradox of American feminism. Interrogating feminism’s own thorny contradictions and challenges, Lynn Chancer offers women a bold and inspiring plan for claiming equality with men—once and for all."

—Lisa Wade, author of American Hookup: The New Culture of Sex on Campus

"After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism is an engaging, well written, and accessible map of our feminist past, present, and future. This book should be required reading for everyone interested in gender justice and committed to the full human rights of all women and men."

—France Winddance Twine, co-editor of Feminisms and Antiracism: International Struggles for Justice

"With her characteristic brilliance, Lynn Chancer charts the hard-won victories and persistent obstacles that have marked women’s changing status since the rise of second wave feminism. After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism is a tour-de-force diagnosis of contemporary feminism’s conundrums and a blueprint for feminists of all stripes to come together to achieve equality."

—Kathleen Gerson, author of The Unfinished Revolution: Coming of Age in a New Era of Gender, Work, and Family

Lynn Chancer offers us an alternative to ‘leaning in,’ one responsive to the needs of diverse groups of women and rooted in intersectional activism. Her insights are a welcome and revitalizing intervention, outlining a bold and practical way forward and a hopeful path toward ‘big tent’ feminism.

—Kerwin Kaye, Wesleyan University

Lynn Chancer, a lifelong feminist scholar, has the perspective necessary to help us understand where feminism is now, where it came from, and where it could go. Whether you’re a newly minted feminist or an old hand, this book is a fresh read on feminism’s promise for full liberation as well as the roadblocks that could stop the revolution in its tracks.

—Laurie Essig, author of Love, Inc. Dating Apps, the Big White Wedding, and Chasing the Happily Neverafter

"After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism makes a compelling case for how feminists can find common ground from an intersectional perspective to organize for social justice. Impressive and timely, this is an indispensable resource for anyone interested in gender, social movements, and contemporary culture."

—Isabel Pinedo, Hunter College, CUNY

Lynn Chancer’s advice for completing the feminist revolution is sage, practical, and eminently useful. Feminists young and old will be reinvigorated by this call to battle.

—Judith Lorber, author of Breaking the Bowls: Degendering and Feminist Change

Lynn Chancer illuminates the commonalities that connect feminists from across the movement. Anyone who has been marginalized because of any aspect of their being—including gender, sexuality, race, class, education, and beyond—will find solace and hope in this book.

—Beverly-Xaviera Watkins, NYU College of Global Public Health

To

Alex

and his many feminist friends,

who inspire my conviction in the ability

of future generations to change

Contents

Preface

1. Taking Stock

2. Debating the F Word

3. Achieving Political, Economic, and Educational Equalities

4. Liberating Sexual Choices

5. Ending Violence against Women—and Men

6. Changing Sexist Imagery

7. Taking Back a Revolution

Acknowledgments

Notes

Index

Preface

For reasons it has taken me a long while to divine, this book was the hardest to write of anything I have published to date. First, I fretted about titles; as the research and writing moved along, names for the book morphed in point/counterpoint with events. In 2014 I envisioned calling the book I’m Not a Feminist but . . . : Re-igniting a Stalled Revolution. Many people, including feminist friends and my editor, appreciated the title since the phrase I’m not a feminist but . . . had become recognizable in and beyond the purview of college classes and professors. At that historical moment, it was just about commonplace to hear people begin statements by disavowing the label feminist before going on immediately to agree with a major tenet—say, equal pay for equal work—that was widely associated with feminism (and feminisms). In that year, too, it was not unusual to hear talk of postfeminism, a term frequently associated with earlier generations of women now in their sixties and seventies—in other words, with mothers and grandmothers whose daughters had realized major benefits of a supposedly no-longer-needed social movement.

However, as feminist issues, from violence against women to political and economic inequalities, appeared to be undeniably persistent (especially considering problems of all women across races and classes) and as the word feminist was used positively again—for example, in 2013, Beyonce calling herself a modern-day feminist—I decided the title needed recasting. What I settled on was The Rise and Stall of American Feminism: Taking Back the Gender Revolution since, as this book states, remarkable achievements and stubborn impediments are obvious from the second wave’s heyday in the late 1960s and 1970s through the present. For feminists of the second wave, sexism began to be defined in those decades in terms of discrimination women encountered in and outside the workplace, as well as sometimes coercive controls and objectification of women’s bodies that impeded or prevented women from living full, equal, and safe lives. Yet feminist goals like universal daycare and women’s equal participation in politics and the culture industries have still not fully come to pass.

But then I started thinking, and shifting, again. Did the title sound too negative? So much was happening in the United States—not only from 2014 onward but following the 2016 presidential election—as to augur a potential renaissance in the importance of calling oneself a feminist. The #MeToo movement that rose and spread spectacularly in 2017 and 2018 bespeaks a highly significant feminist appropriation of social media. It continues to bring major effects, at a pace that is hard to keep up with, in and beyond the world of the internet and mass culture. As a result, powerful men from Harvey Weinstein (in Hollywood) to Ron Porter (in the White House), to name but a few, have been brought down by people, by women, acting collectively in response to the sometimes frustrating insufficient impact of charges made at the level of individual legal cases. These effects may assist in redressing many of the sociological issues analyzed in this book that show stalling in some areas or by some criteria. At the same time, feminists’ concerns with nuanced thinking recommends applying #MeToo carefully so that due process issues for men and for everyone are respected, and so that unequal charges are not treated (incorrectly) as equal.

Overall, new or renewed movement is happening as women, men, people who identify as non-binary, feminists, and activists who are commonly concerned about intersectionality are taking on simmering problems while at the same time drawing on the many accomplishments of prior decades. But shared angers may be simmering below the surface, too, motivated in part by disappointment at the defeat of the most serious candidate for president in American history who has been a woman, and even more by shared reactions to sexist calls (themselves enraged) at mass rallies for Hillary Clinton to be locked up. Exemplifying such recent shifts: with the Golden Globe Awards ceremony in early 2018, I felt I was watching this book’s cultural analysis come alive—far from the academy, of which I inhabit a tiny corner—as Oprah Winfrey and others decried the paucity of women and people of color, and their lack of power and control, among directors nominated for major awards. At an anecdotal but still noteworthy level, I have heard of women working for well-known Hollywood companies who have been recently assigned to a higher-up (male) executive to be mentored by this person, a reform that acknowledges and reacts to the recent calling out of gender biases. Thus reactions are occurring that, as they spread and circulate, are not only virtual but material in their repercussions.

Toward all this, not only have I been inwardly (and to whoever will listen) cheering bravo, but I was also inspired to retweak the title one last time. After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism: Taking Back a Revolution underscores as clearly as possible that momentum may be building and that what has stalled may be starting to alter, to reboot, in the near future. Renewal may be taking place at a mass level, a renewal of beliefs and goals that many feminists and feminist groups have been working on stalwartly for the last fifty years. I truly hope this is so and have no pretentions of objectivity in this regard. Rather, my intention is for this book to partake in this dynamic process, however modestly: first and foremost, my purposes are constructively aimed and unabashedly feminist.

Why then was the book so difficult to write? Reflecting back on a book that is itself a looking back, I perceive a second, emotional difficulty in having found surveying the successes and problems of the American feminist movement to be surprisingly challenging. In retrospect, I often worried, not necessarily consciously, about whether I would offend this one or that one, one feminist group or another, if I said this or that. Would the goal of calling attention to feminist commonalities and differences be somehow attacked or criticized, and in a spirit that unwittingly partook of recurring divisions I was about to explore? Did I leave something or someone out? I have fretted that some will think the book does not stress stalling and impediments enough; others will think it overemphasizes them. Of course, on one level this is an academic professional hazard, but on another, I felt myself reliving (in anticipation) tendencies toward fragmentation that have been a troubling, potentially destructive aspect of American progressive social movements for more decades than this book mentions. Moreover, the issue may be distinctively salient for feminisms, as the very character of sexism has been to divide women from one another, a structural tendency that calls for special attention or, at the very least, reflection, self-awareness, and memory.

Here is where I came down eventually on all of this. There has to be value, I became convinced, in examining what happened before so as to prevent patterned tendencies from happening again. Maybe more than ever, it now feels crucially important not to reinvent the wheel. For example, early second wave feminism arose from many women—and not only white middle-class women but women of color too—experiencing sexism in left-wing and racial justice social movements. After decades, though, it could be easy to forget this, as feminists veered away from cross-class and cross-racial organizing, a problem that intersectionally oriented feminists and feminisms are in a process of remedying. It was somewhat daunting to put all this together—to insist on the (long feminist) brilliance of thinking, feeling, and acting, alone and together, on things that so often are questions not of either/or but of both/and—of more than one thing having social and individual validity. Scanning the past brings back this problem of forgetting-and-remembering, as does placing issues of divisiveness on a timeline that provides a long-term context.

Just as worth remembering is that in many ways assessing stalling, or its inverse, is often quite a different matter in sociological terms and perceptions from how it is perceived in the mass media. Politicians and journalists—and feminists too—can talk about making changes to parental leave policies even as, stepping back, this has not changed the long view that many or most women, men, and families who badly need all-day high-quality childcare do not yet have it. Cultural changes may be starting to happen in Hollywood, but overall the structure of the American culture industries remains overwhelmingly male- and white-dominated. Without nearly enough actualizing equalities, its problems are (yes!) nonetheless talked about more regularly in media reports, as reflected in popular cultural representations. Likewise, public attitudes toward reproductive choice do still remain in favor of Roe v. Wade, yet poor women and most women living in rural areas have been badly affected by closing clinics, which overall makes it hard if not impossible to procure abortions.

After the Rise and Stall of American Feminism proposes markers and a sense of perspective as to where a still very young movement has been and where it still seeks to go. Above all, I hope the book will be useful to women, men, and other people, to students but also to people working and those not working. The book is aimed as widely as possible, perhaps relevant to college classes where younger-to-older students may gain from reflecting on common and different purposes of the contemporary feminist movement, but also still readable by someone’s mother, sister, brother, or cousin for discussion. I definitely hope the book will interest those who may not be persuaded by feminist ideas and goals. At the same time, I apologize in advance for anything or anyone that has been left out, imperfectly, and hope the book is read in the constructive spirit I intended. If even a little of this happens, then overcoming small personal anxieties, which themselves are part of building and rebuilding the American feminist movement politically, has been well worth it to me and I hope to others as well. Let’s see what happens next. There is one point of which I am utterly persuaded: as the twenty-first century marches on, in and beyond America, this revolutionizing movement for human equality, too long denied to over half the population, will grow.

1

Taking Stock

While it would be ridiculous to say that feminists in the United States have accomplished nothing, it would be similarly foolish to claim that nearly enough has changed. Neither statement is adequately nuanced to capture the complexities that still confront feminists since the second wave of feminism splashed onto the American social landscape in the 1960s and 1970s, spreading nationally and internationally, creating backlashes and so-called culture wars, touching just about everything in its path, and raising tantalizing if not yet realized expectations. In those first years, Betty Friedan diagnosed malaise among suburban housewives in The Feminine Mystique;¹ the National Organization of Women (NOW) was founded in 1966, becoming the country’s largest and in time the longest-lasting women’s rights organization. Long ago (or not, depending on one’s vantage point), and all in 1968, Shirley Chisholm made history as the first African American woman to be elected to the House of Representatives; NOW formed a committee to launch the easily forgotten (because failed) Equal Rights Amendment (ERA); and protests were launched at the Miss America pageant against sexist objectification of women amid an outpouring of media hoopla.² Fast-forwarding to the present, though, these events now provoke a crucial query: what exactly has been accomplished and what remains to be done? Stepping back, how has the U.S. movement fared a half century after the explosion of the second wave and in subsequent waves—the third, the fourth—through the practices of younger and older feminists?

The time seems right to take stock, to look with the benefit of hindsight at exactly where the American feminist movement has landed. This need to reevaluate came into cultural consciousness with a vengeance in the aftermath of the November 2016 election, when Hillary Rodham Clinton did not become—as many expected—the first woman president of the United States. Winning the popular vote by nearly three million,³ Clinton still lost the Electoral College with only 232 votes⁴ as the traditionally Democratic states of Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin voted Trump instead.⁵ Accused of sexist statements and actions himself, President Donald Trump inherited a deeply divided nation within which gendered divisions were stunningly manifest. Shocking to those anticipating a large gender gap were results showing that a slim majority of white women (53%) voted for Trump over Clinton in the 2016 presidential election.⁶ Hillary won women as a group but only narrowly (54% to Trump’s 42%).⁷ That narrow margin was thanks to 94 percent of African American women and 68 percent of Latinas swinging in her favor.⁸ Intersectionality—meaning the overlap of gender discrimination and other forms of social discrimination in people’s lives and perceptions—clearly affected the election’s outcome.

The upshot of the election attested to a profoundly divided U.S. electorate and revealed feminist issues as ongoing sources of contention as well as influence, although the word feminist remained vague as to what it meant to whom. Certainly fifty years post feminism, large numbers of people are proud to call themselves feminists. The shift was noticeable in popular culture, as for example Beyoncé declared herself a feminist in 2014.⁹ A few years later, on January 21, 2017, activists organized a major and phenomenally successful series of women’s marches in Washington, New York, and other cities (nationally and internationally) in multi-issue protest against Donald Trump’s November 2016 election. Marches were reorganized one year later, on January 20, 2018. Meanwhile, the #MeToo campaign against sexual harassment has become a spectacularly effective expression of feminist consciousness in its own right. Beginning with well-known men in the media world and on through entertainment moguls, actors, journalists, businessmen, political figures, and in protest against the nomination of now-Supreme Court justice Brett Kavanaugh, this campaign—against power dynamics that sexualize, objectify, and coerce women—can hardly be separated from the mushrooming of feminist awareness occurring in sometimes unexpected ways since the second wave’s beginnings in the 1960s and 1970s.

Thus no longer is it unusual for women (or men, or other persons) of any age, from the millennial generation through aging baby boomers, to be deeply affected by this movement and to find themselves worried whether hard-won progress on sexual assault, reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and other feminist issues will be turned back given conservative shifts in 2016 and 2017.¹⁰ Complicating matters, though, is that many still remain unpersuaded or even antagonistic toward feminism, their primary affiliations having solidified along class, race, or ethnic more than gender lines. People have sometimes said, amid heated debates at school or work or when starting informal conversations, I’m not a feminist but . . . To those in this category ambivalence remains, and a split sense of attraction to and dissociation from the label has not evanesced. An April 2013 Huffington Post / YouGov poll found that only 23 percent of women and 16 percent of men would call themselves feminist. Yet 82 percent of respondents reacted affirmatively—women and men equally—when the word was more precisely defined to indicate agreement with the statement Men and women should be social, political and economic equals.¹¹

For the millions who have been swayed by or committed to a world wherein options for women and men have expanded in all walks of life, from labor to religion to school and sex, the results of what feminist sociologist Kathleen Gerson terms a gender revolution appear mixed and extremely complicated. On the one hand, the feminist movement bequeathed immense transformations that have affected pretty much everyone; by now it is decidedly global, by no means simply local or U.S.-centric, in its scope and ramifications. As Gerson shows through interviews with 120 varied young women and men in The Unfinished Revolution,¹² changes concerning ideas about equal pay, attitudes toward divorce, and sexual preferences have broadly taken hold in people’s everyday lives—whether or not the children of this gender revolution call themselves feminist per se. On the other hand, feminist issues like sexual harassment and sexual assault are strikingly persistent; for instance, rape remains a serious problem within the military, on college campuses, at schools, and within communities.¹³ On the issue of sexual harassment, signs of tremendous change are palpable: the #MeToo campaign grew in 2017 and 2018 vis-à-vis the use of media and social media into a powerful wave that reveals this ongoing problem for women to be of widespread, even mind-boggling proportions.

Indeed, women who had kept silent for years about their experiences came forward about men who had exerted physical, emotional, and sexual power over them in the entertainment industries and beyond. Regarding Harvey Weinstein alone, more than sixty women reported incidents of having been harassed or assaulted over a period of more than twenty years.¹⁴ In 2006 Los Angeles activist Tarana Burke began the Me Too movement; it was thereafter popularized by actress Alyssa Milano through the hashtag #MeToo, to which over half a million tweets and more than twelve million posts on Facebook responded across the world in twenty-four hours.¹⁵ Weeks after Weinstein’s accusers came forward, another woman charged that President George H. W. Bush had groped her from his wheelchair;¹⁶ shortly thereafter, Bill O’Reilly was fired from Fox News following multiple allegations of sexual harassment and assault and a settlement he agreed to for thirty-two million dollars (the largest of six such settlements that totaled close to forty-five million dollars).¹⁷ Previously, in 2016, Fox News chairman Roger Ailes had been fired for numerous claims of sexual assault.¹⁸

The list is growing, attesting to a new wave of