In Broad Daylight: The Secret Procedures behind the Holocaust by Bullets

Also by Father Patrick Desbois

The Holocaust by Bullets: A Priest’s Journey to Uncover the Truth

Behind the Murder of 1.5 Million Jews

Copyright © 2015 by Librairie Arthème Fayard

English-language translation copyright © 2018 by Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.

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First Edition

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Desbois, Patrick, author. | Reyl, Hilary, translator. | Barksdale, Calvert, translator.

Title: In broad daylight : the secret procedures behind the Holocaust by bullets / Father Patrick Desbois ; translated from the French by Hilary Reyl and Calvert Barksdale.

Other titles: Voisins du crime. English

Description: First edition. | New York : Arcade Publishing, [2018]

Identifiers: LCCN 2017041541 (print) | LCCN 2017043328 (ebook) | ISBN 9781628728590 (ebook) | ISBN 9781628728576 (hardcover : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Jews—Persecutions—Soviet Union. | Holocaust, Jewish (1939–1945)—Soviet Union—Personal narratives. | Soviet Union—Ethnic relations.

Classification: LCC DS134.85 (ebook) | LCC DS134.85 .D4713 2018 (print) | DDC 940.53/180922477—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017041541

Cover design by Erin Seaward-Hiatt

Cover photo © Imperial War Museum (HU86369)

Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS

Historical Introduction by Andrej Umansky

Introduction

Part One: The Night Before

  1   The Architect

  2   The Requisitions

  3   The Diggers

  4   The Night

  5   The Rapes

Part Two: The Morning

  6   Barriers

  7   The Column of Jews

  8   The Girl in Love

  9   The Director of the Trucking Company

10   The Transporters of Jews

11   The Layers of Planks

Part Three: The Day

12   The Dance

13   The Cooks and the Shooters

14   The Curious Children

15   The Child with the Bullets

16   The Forced Witnesses

17   A German Soldier as Spectator

18   The Transporter of Clothing

19   The Teachers

Part Four: The Evening

20   The Fillers

21   The Sale

Part Five: The Day After

22   The Auctions

23   The Coats

24   The Patchworker

25   The Sanitizer

26   The Method

Conclusion: The Photographer

Afterword

Notes

Index

Photos

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

SEPTEMBER 1941: Eight hundred Jews are shot by a German unit in Pushkin, near Saint Petersburg, in Russia.

OCTOBER 12, 1941: Three hundred Jewish women and children are executed by German customs officials and Lithuanian police in Palanga, Lithuania.

THE END OF 1941: Dozens of Jewish families are killed by a German unit in Naro-Fominsk, forty miles from Moscow.

DECEMBER 1942: Several hundred Jews are murdered by Sonderkommando 11b, a subunit of Einsatzgruppe D¹ in Naltchik, in the Balkan republic of Kabardino in southern Russia, forty miles from Georgia.

These four mass killings during World War II are geographically linked. They mark the farthest reaches of the Shoah by bullets that was perpetrated by German units in Soviet territory.

Between 1941 and 1944, thousands of executions took place in the Soviet republics of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldavia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, over an area ranging from Galicia to the shores of the Baltic Sea and from the Muscovite forests to the Caucasian borders.

Within the present-day borders of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine alone, historians estimate the number of Jews exterminated to have been 2.2 million,² more than 80 percent of them by bullets, with the remainder having been deported and murdered in camps or gas trucks.³ It is for this reason that this period of mass murder of Soviet Jews is called the Shoah by bullets. The criminal method of murder by firing squad was employed throughout the Eastern Shoah, regardless of the number of victims. It could be a single Jewish family in a small village or tens of thousands of people in a large Ukrainian city.

From the summer of 1941 through the spring of 1944, the killers repeated the same process over and over: the exterminating the Jewish population—men, women, and children—by firing squad, most often at sites just outside villages and towns. Despite concerns by the Nazis in charge about the psychological health of the executioners, no alternative method was put in place.

Paul Blobel, the head of Sonderkommando 4a, the main unit responsible for the September 1941 massacre of the Jews of Kiev in the Babi Yar ravine,⁴ was questioned about the process of executing their Jewish victims by Judge Michael A. Musmanno during the trial of the Einsatzgruppen in Nuremberg⁵:

BLOBEL: Everything went very quietly. It took time, of course, and I must say that our men who took part in these executions suffered more from nervous exhaustion than those who had to be shot.

MUSMANNO: In other words, your pity was more for the men who had to shoot than for the victims?

BLOBEL: Our men had to be cared for.

MUSMANNO: And you felt very sorry for them?

BLOBEL: Yes. These people suffered a lot, psychologically.⁶

Certain members of the German units became veritable experts, congratulating themselves on Aktions⁷ smoothly carried out. Such was the case of Waffen-SS Herbert Wollenweber, a member of Sonderkommando 10a. When questioned about a major execution of Jews in the foothills of the Caucuses, he chose to emphasize his commando’s expertise.

The Jews were fairly calm. Schmitt [the leader of the commando] had organized the operation well. He was a fine man.⁸

The members of the death squads accepted the Shoah by bullets as the only efficient method of extermination over such vast territory (almost one million square miles). Franz Halle, a member of the police and Sonderkommando 4a, explained his attitude regarding the extermination of the Jews in Ukraine when he was questioned about the Sonderkommando’s actions in a hearing:

Today, I admit that these proceedings were very misguided. At the point we had reached, we should have found other methods of exterminating the Jews.⁹

Halle betrayed no guilt about killing Jews, nor did he question the nature of the orders he received. For him, only the method to be used in committing murder posed a problem. The murder itself was simply a task to be carried out.

There is a second major difference between the Shoah in the East and the murder of the Jews in concentration and extermination camps, such as Operation Reinhardt.¹⁰ The deportation of Jews to these camps was often done in secret or at least discreetly. Sometimes, in the case of those headed to Auschwitz, the victims were forced to write to their relatives to say that all was well and not to worry.

The Shoah in the East, by contrast, was not discreet. The victims were publicly assembled, albeit often at first on the pretext of being sent to a labor camp or to Palestine. The mass murder then took place in full view of the victims’ neighbors, the curious, and soldiers or civilians who happened to be there. The following testimony from a German staff sergeant named Sönnecken, a member of the Abwehr,¹¹ appears in a report on the execution of several thousand Jews of Borisov, shot in Belarus in October 1941:

"In the distance the noise of rifles could be heard all day, the women and children cried and screamed, cars sped through the streets of the ghetto, bringing new victims—all in full view of the civilian population and any German military personnel who happened to be passing by.

It might have been possible to block off the site in some way, but non-Jews lived the other side of the street and in the streets adjacent. In their eyes, you could read either apathy or horror, because the scenes they’d witnessed were so horrible!¹²

Maintaining secrecy would have been all the more difficult given that the local population was regularly conscripted to assist before, during, and after the shootings. Sometimes the executioners forced the townspeople to watch the killings; sometimes it was passersby, stopped to ensure that they didn’t get in the way, who witnessed the murders. The presence of spectators, whether forced or voluntary, wasn’t a concern, so long as it didn’t disrupt the efficiency of the operation.

It may seem surprising, then, that this aspect of the Holocaust has remained so little known, when there has been testimony from witnesses as well as from the executioners and survivors among the victims. The reason for this may be that many of these accounts weren’t published until 1980, when the Black Book by Vasily Grossman and Ilya Ehrenburg became publicly available.¹³ Thousands of accounts have yet to be discovered in the Soviet and German archives.

Toward the end of 1942, the Soviets created the Extraordinary State Commission¹⁴ with the goal of recording the human and material damage caused by the Germans in occupied territory. In each formerly occupied district, committees were formed with representatives from the church, the police, and the schools. These committees searched for witnesses to the executions while experts examined the mass graves for medical and legal evidence. More than 25,000 people were interviewed. Several million pages were written.¹⁵ Virtually inaccessible to Western historians before the fall of the Berlin Wall, this material is now available in the Russian Federal Archives.

The German judicial system,¹⁶ which to this day continues to investigate Nazi crimes, has questioned hundreds of thousands of people about the extermination of the Eastern Jews. Their memories are preserved in the regional archives of various states, primarily in the federal archives in Ludwigsburg, home of the central bureau for the investigation of National Socialist crimes.

One would be hard-pressed to find the execution of a Jewish community that was not documented by the testimony of survivors, executioners, or neighbors. It all happened in plain sight. Yet the way in which these crimes unfolded, from the predawn hours well into the night, remains little known to the general public. The goal of this book is to remedy that.

ANDREJ UMANSKY¹⁷

INTRODUCTION

Iwas moved recently to discover the beautiful book by Albert Camus, The Wrong Side and the Right Side.¹ Since childhood, I’ve used the terms the wrong side and the right side to understand myself.

Camus grew up in a poor family under the Algerian sun and I in the warmth of a joyful family, equally simple and full of love. The wrong side and the right side were imprinted within him, as the nervous system of what he would become: "For myself, I know that my roots are in The Wrong Side and the Right Side, in the world of poverty and light where I lived for so long, the memory of which still protects me from the two opposing dangers that threaten all artists, resentment and satisfaction. Poverty was never a misfortune for me: the light graced it with riches. Even my revolts were illuminated. They were almost always, and I believe I can say this truthfully, revolts in the name of all."

The wrong side. I spent my childhood and youth with the sense of dwelling, along with my entire family, on the wrong side of what was, for others, the right one.

On my maternal side, the Rivière family, my farmer grandparents lived four and a half miles from the center of Villegaudin, a small village in Saône-et-Loire, on the site of a castle, the Château de la Marche, that had burned down long ago. The property now belonged to a Parisian family. We knew everything about the place: the moats that filled with water and frogs in the summertime, the linden trees whose flowers we had to gather quickly in big white sheets as soon as the weather turned hot, the round pond teeming with fish and bordered with ivy-covered stone benches, and, most of all, the acres of dense forest that, under the guidance of my grandfather Émile, a true woodsman, we tended like a fragile pearl. Everywhere there was light.

My grandmother Victorine embodied the goodness, the smile, and the rigor of the Christian faith. A solid peasant, she not only spoke her native Bressane dialect but also cultivated a French that was refined, almost distinguished. She felt it her duty to serve her landlords when they arrived from Paris to their château. Our farm, our fields, our duck ponds, were for them a place to vacation, a place to spend their leisure time. Victorine called them our patrons. They usually arrived in the heat of August for their summer vacation. We were their second home.

Once their arrival had been announced to the Château de la Marche by telephone, we had to open all the doors in their building as well as the wooden shutters that would sometimes creak, still swollen with winter’s humidity. We had to make the beds with big sheets from the armoires, chase away the mice, and then leave discreetly by the little back door behind the kitchen while they came in through the big front door. Therein lay the pride of Victorine Rivière.

The Parisians must have had the impression that they’d left the house only the day before. The moment they arrived, my grandmother closed all of our south-facing shutters for the length of their stay so they could sunbathe undisturbed. Thus, we spent the entire month of August in semi-obscurity, on the wrong side of our landlords’ lives. It was a semi-darkness I found hard to bear, because I knew we shouldn’t, by our mere existence, spoil their light.

My childhood was spent between town and country; the back-and-forth between Chalon-sur-Saône and Villegaudin gave our life its rhythm, like a metronome.

My parents had a small shop in Chalon-sur-Saône that sold cheese and poultry—foods that, in Bresse, are often found at the same locations. At 47 rue aux Fèvres, Au Bon Gruyère, life and work were of a piece. In her work clothes, a blue or white smock, my mother practiced the smile she had learned from her mother. Bonjour Madame, what is your pleasure today? I heard her repeat this a thousand times.

Inside the shop, we lived in the shade, in the gray light of walls so close together the sun’s rays could never reach us. We left the warm light of the country for the cold and lightless town.

The lives of others were our theater; our clients confided constantly. The daughter of one was divorcing, another had lost his dog, a white poodle, and a third had just become a grandfather, at long last! Some railed against the left, others against the right.

My father had given the strict order to smile, serve, and keep quiet. Their interesting lives paraded through our little shop like a living carousel.

Sometimes we had to leave the stage and descend a small, rough wooden ladder backward to visit the cold storage room or fetch wheels of Gruyère de Comté or bottles of milk from our basement, which was kept at a constant temperature, like us.

This wrong side was quite amusing to my eyes. We knew everything about the lives of others, who spoke freely. Our presence didn’t bother them at all. We were transparent. They came to us without makeup. My father would often exclaim, It’s worse than a confessional in here! We lived in an opposite time and season from the others.

I gave myself a task: to know all the inhabitants of rue aux Fèvres, floor by floor, building by building. I made it my work and, perhaps, also my game. They were my planet, my encyclopedia, and my life: Tunisians, Italians, Algerians, Jews, all living on my street. In order to better observe them, I asked my parents to give me a little straw-bottomed chair that I placed conscientiously at the entrance to the store, to the left of the door. I sat for hours watching them pass by, chatting, arguing, going home.

I also knew the town well from delivering chickens. The telephone would ring: Hello, Madame Desbois? I’d like a Bresse chicken, about one and a half kilos [three pounds]. Not fatty! Would you prepare it and have it delivered? But of course.

I knew the clients’ addresses by heart. The chicken, ready to cook, was wrapped in a pretty sheet of glazed paper with the name of our shop. I was proud of it.

One day, it was raining hard. I had run all the way to my destination on the Grand Boulevard and arrived soaked, protecting the chicken in its glazed paper as best I could. At the entrance to the building, I rang, redid the packaging, and climbed up two flights. The door was opened by a woman, the notary’s wife, who said with a grimace, Oh, don’t come in! You smell like wet clothes! Then, with the proper discretion, she slipped me my ten or twenty centimes tip. I went back out into the rain, freed of my precious chicken, my heart a little pinched.

It must have been on that day, returning to the shop, that I decided to apply myself to my studies. I didn’t want to remain the transparent assistant forever, living in the gloom, serving the inhabitants of the right side of the world who leaned so heavily on our wrong side.

A child of public schools, I devoured all the knowledge and opportunities that were offered me, for free, by my country, my republic, the France that I so loved. I went from school to the public arts center, from the poems of Prévert to the songs of Jacques Brel, from the public libraries to the university. I studied mathematics with a passion.

Thirty years have passed.

I have never forgotten the fault line between the wrong side and the right side. Perhaps I have never left it. I couldn’t fathom, in my youth, how much being born in the world’s backstage would inform my entire life, how the wrong side would shape my quest.

Thirty years have passed.

Faith in God struck me like lightning one Friday while I was studying for my exams in mathematics at the university in Dijon. It happened in the middle of campus. I, the militant atheist, fully conscious, felt myself suddenly overtaken by a certainty, a crazy and unacceptable certainty: God existed. For years afterward, I asked myself what he wanted from me.

I hesitated for a long time between becoming a Protestant or Catholic.

My work with Mother Teresa in Calcutta played a decisive role. After having studied mathematics, theology, and history, I became a priest. As my superior at the seminary would say to the other priests, Don’t forget, he wasn’t made in our house, in the Church!

Having belonged to the world of the little people has given me a specific sensibility. To this day, in restaurants I remain fascinated by the clear, cold line that separates the space of the clients from that of the waitstaff. On the other side of the kitchen door is a different world. There are no more decorations, often; just sad tiles, noisy plates, and anonymous hands washing dishes.

But the transparent cleaning women and the bellhops do see all of our habits and our faults. They move between the wrong side and the right side. Their clients pay to ignore this, to buy into an illusory world, a theater set, where for an hour or two they can leave real life, and the shadows who people it, in the wings. Perhaps these clients can even forget, through disdain or habit, that they are living a spectacle.

My family wasn’t even sure of being on the right side’s other side. Rather, we had the feeling of existing behind the scenery.

In 1940, fifteen years before I was born, my family found itself caught in the wings of History with a capital H, the history of the war. Our farm was first requisitioned by the Maquis, the French Resistance, and then it was taken over by the Germans.

At that time, my Desbois grandparents lived on the island of Saint-Laurent, between the Saône and the Genise Rivers. Marie-Louise, my paternal grandmother, lived less than a hundred yards from the dividing line separating occupied from free France.

Victorine, my other grandmother, found herself, like many French women at the time, the sole caretaker of both the farm and the family. She had to figure out how to face all the challenges of those who refused to accept the German fascists’ occupation. Fernande, my mother, told us of having hidden vats of flour under the armoires when the Communists came to look for food and of later being terrified when the Germans smashed the same armoires with their rifle butts searching for Communists!

From her stories, we understood everything, perhaps too much.

The farm had become a hideout as well as an anti-aircraft site. The anti-aircraft batteries of the Resistance, installed twenty yards from our kitchen door, took out two German aircraft, which fell into our fields. Our farm buildings were transformed into interrogation rooms and prison cells for collaborators. The German pilots who were caught and tortured in our stable—or, more precisely, in our pigsty—were buried on our land. I still don’t know where. The Alsatian refugees who came to us from the train station slept on our second floor.

Some neighbors denounced us. There have always been such souls in difficult times. The Germans, of course, came to reclaim their own. My grandmother stopped a violent search of the house at the risk of incurring the Germans’ wrath and causing hostages—that is, the men of the hamlet—to be shot. This was one of the ways her Christian responsibility manifested itself. She was forever marked by it, conscious not only of history, big and small, but also of the fact that there are days when one has to stand firm. She was, by turns, a servant and a combatant.

I was born ten years after the end of the war. Yet it was as though I had two sets of memories, those of a simple farmhand and those of all the little people who had dared to say no before me. Once the war was over, the worldwide performance ended. The cadavers were forgotten. But my family could never quite return to the wings like before, like the others. The past stuck to our boots like clay.

It is surely this childhood perspective, so damaged by the noise from the machines of war occupying our fields, that led me later to other fields in Ukraine. But even more than the sound, it is the silence. The silence of Claudius, my grandfather whom I loved so much. He was a short, stocky man, a joker, his dark blue beret firmly on his head, a Gitane cigarette stuck behind his ear, and always a blue apron with big pockets. He was the family comedian, at least in appearance. The cheerful one, like Edith Piaf’s sad clown, making everyone around him laugh.

But he got quiet whenever anyone brought up his wartime past. Joking stopped as soon as someone pronounced the forbidden words: Rawa Ruska.² The site of his deportation in 1942. Camp 325.³

As a child at family meals, I would press him, not understanding the reasons for his silences. His wife, Marie-Louise, would leave the table, her glasses fogged. Eventually, I stopped trying to bring it up. But one early morning, in our all-purpose van as we left Chalon to go buy Bresse chickens at various farms, I asked him one more time, What did you do at Rawa Ruska? Why don’t you talk about it? We were alone that day. Gravely, he offered me these few words: Patrick, we were locked in a camp with nothing to drink, we ate grass and dandelions, but outside the camp, for the others, it was worse.

Then we drove in silence for a long time. His words are etched in me now like the topographical map of an impossible memory, the equation, the topology of an enigma that has become my own: Outside, for the others, it was worse. But who were the others? And at Rawa Ruska, where was this outside?

A few months before his death, knowing he was going to leave this world, Claudius, who was sitting at the head of the kitchen table in his little apartment on Saint-Laurent, asked me, What are you going to do when I die? Chuckling, I answered, Inherit! He burst out laughing; so did I. I had learned with him to laugh at everything, even when you are crying inside. Even when you are dying.

On that day, I did not gauge the true weight of my response. I was inheriting. Inheriting silence.

Much later, in Paris, I met René Chevalier—Maurice’s nephew⁴—himself a survivor of Rawa Ruska, Camp 325, and we decided to return there.

Early one morning, we walked through the village, which was slowly awakening from the Soviet ice age. I found the French internment camp virtually unchanged. Empty acres with scattered buildings here and there. A Soviet barracks had been built on the site, and one of its walls was painted entirely with scenes from a legend of the Red Army. Farther along, on the outskirts of the town, under thick brambles, we managed to find immense concrete slabs under which most of the 25,000 murdered Soviet prisoners were buried. They were no longer honored in this Ukraine, which by then had declared its independence.

According to the archives, more than 15,000 Jews were shot at Rawa Ruska proper.

We asked everywhere: