Food Security and Climate Change

List of Contributors

Michael Abberton

IITA Genetic Resources Centre International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

Ibadan

Nigeria

Elizabeth A. Ainsworth

USDA ARS Global Change and Photosynthesis Research Unit

Urbana

USA

Ahmed Amri

International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA)

Rabat

Morocco

Kiruba Shankari Arun‐Chinnappa

Centre for Crop Health

University of Southern Queensland Toowoomba

Australia

Naresh Kumar Bainsla

Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR

New Delhi

India

Fenton D. Beed

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Rome

Italy

Ranjan Bhattacharyya

Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR

New Delhi

India

Carlos Cantero‐Martinez

Department of Crop and Forestry Science, Agrotecnio

Universitat de Lleida

Lleida

Spain

Wuu‐Yang Chen

World Vegetable Center

Shanhua

Tainan

Taiwan

Gangadhar Karjagi Chikkappa

ICAR‐Indian Institute of Maize Research

New Delhi

India

Sain Dass

Ex Director Maize

Indian Council of Agricultural Research

New Delhi

India

Mahendra Dia

Department of Horticultural Sciences

North Carolina State University

Raleigh

North Carolina

USA

Thomas Dubois

World Vegetable Center, Eastern and Southern Africa

Duluti

Arusha

Tanzania

Sangam L. Dwivedi

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi‐Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

Patancheru

Telangana

India

Andreas W. Ebert

Freelance International Consultant in Agriculture and Agrobiodiversity

Schwaebisch Gmuend

Germany

Kyla Finlay

Agriculture Victoria Research

Horsham

Victoria

Australia

Rebecca Ford

Environmental Futures Research Centre

Griffith University

Nathan

Queensland

Australia

Kiran Gaikwad

Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR

New Delhi

India

Otieno Gloria

Bioversity International Regional Office of Uganda

Kampala

Uganda

Abdul Basir Habibi

Afghanistan Agriculture Input Project Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation & Livestock, Kabul

Afghanistan

Bindumadhava Hanumantha Rao

World Vegetable Center South Asia

Greater Hyderabad

Telangana

India

Jerry L. Hatfield

National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, USDA‐ARS

Ames

Iowa

USA

V. S. Hegde

Division of Genetics

Indian Agricultural Research Institute

Indian Council of Agricultural Research

New Delhi

India

Naoki Hirotsu

Tokyo University

Japan

Danny Hunter

Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems Initiative Bioversity International

Rome

Italy

and

Plant and Agricultural Biosciences Centre (PABC)

National University of Ireland

Galway (NUIG)

S. L. Jat

ICAR‐Indian Institute of Maize Research

New Delhi

India

Mithila Jugulam

Department of Agronomy

Kansas State University

Manhattan

USA

Chutchamas Kanchana‐Udomkan

Environmental Futures Research Centre

Griffith University

Nathan

Queensland

Australia

Manjeet Kumar

Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR

New Delhi

India

Sanjeet Kumar

World Vegetable Center

Shanhua

Tainan

Taiwan

Vincent Lebot

CIRAD‐AGAP

Vanuatu

Pauline Lemonnier

USDA ARS Global Change and Photosynthesis Research Unit

Urbana

USA

Li Ling

Legume breeder

Liaoning Institute of Cash Crops

Liaoyang

Liaoning Province

China

Ravza Mavlyanova

World Vegetable Center, Central Asia and the Caucasus

Tashkent

Uzbekistan

Andrew McGregor

Koko Siga Pacific

Fiji

Yasir Mehmood

Environmental Futures Research Centre

Griffith University

Nathan

Queensland

Australia

M. Inés Mínguez

Centre for The Management of Agricultural and Environmental Risk (CEIGRAM‐ETSIAAB‐UPM)

Technical University of Madrid

Madrid

Spain

Lois Wright Morton

Department of Sociology

Iowa State University

Ames

Iowa

Ramakrishnan M. Nair

World Vegetable Center South Asia

Greater Hyderabad

Telangana

India

Usana Nantawan

Environmental Futures Research Centre

Griffith University

Nathan

Queensland

Australia

Harsh Nayyar

Department of Botany

Panjab University

Chandigarh

India

James G. Nuttall

Agriculture Victoria Research

Department of Economic Development Jobs, Transport and Resources

Horsham

Victoria

Australia

Garry J. O'Leary

Agriculture Victoria Research, Department of Economic Development Jobs, Transport and Resources

Horsham

Victoria

Australia

Rodomiro Ortiz

Department of Plant Breeding

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU)

Sundsvagen

Alnarp

Sweden

C.M. Parihar

ICAR‐Indian Agricultural Research Institute

New Delhi

India

Marti Pottorff

Department of Botany and Plant Sciences University of California

Riverside

USA

P.V.V. Prasad

Department of Agronomy

Kansas State University

Manhattan

USA

Srinivasan Ramasamy

World Vegetable Center

Shanhua

Tainan

Taiwan

Robert J. Redden (Retired)

RJR Agricultural Consultants

Horsham

Victoria

Australia

James J. Riley

College of Agriculture and Life Sciences University of Arizona

Tucson

USA

S. Seneweera

Centre for Crop Health

University of Southern Queensland

Toowoomba

Australia

and

National Institute of Fundamental Studies (NIFS)

Kandy

Sri Lanka

Toshiro Shigaki

Laboratory of Plant Pathology

University of Tokyo

Tokyo

Japan

Jessica Sokolow

Research Associate

The Cabrera Research Lab

Ithaca

New York

and

The College of Human Ecology

Cornell Institute of Public Affairs

Cornell University

Ithaca

New York

Mary Taylor

University of the Sunshine Coast

Queensland

Australia

Abdou Tenkouano

CORAF/WECARD

Dakar‐RP

Senegal

Timothy S. Thomas

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)

Washington, DC

USA

Tony McDonald

Institute of Land Water and Society

Charles Sturt University

Australia

Piotr Trębicki

Agriculture Victoria Research

Horsham

Victoria

Australia

Hari Upadyaya

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi‐Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

Patancheru

Telangana

India

Vincent Vadez

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi‐Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

Patancheru

Telangana

India

Aruna K. Varanasi

Department of Agronomy

Kansas State University

Manhattan

USA

Vijaya K. Varanasi

Department of Agronomy

Kansas State University

Manhattan

USA

Suman Verma

Government Holkar Science College

Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya

Indor

India

Jaw‐Fen Wang

Department of Agronomy

National Taiwan University

Taipei

Taiwan

Rajbir Yadav

Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR

New Delhi

India

Shyam S. Yadav

Manav Foundation

Vikaspuri

New Delhi

India

and

Manav Mahal International School

Lohara

Ami Nagar Sarai

Baghpat

Uttar Pradesh

India

Xuxiao Zong

CAAS

China

1

Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security

Shyam S. Yadav¹,⁶, V. S. Hegde², Abdul Basir Habibi³, Mahendra Dia⁴ and Suman Verma⁴

¹Manav Foundation, Vikaspuri, New Delhi, India

²Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India

³Afghanistan Agriculture Input Project, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation & Livestock, Kabul, Afghanistan

⁴Department of Horticultural Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA

⁵Government Holkar Science College, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore, India

⁶Manav Mahal International School, Lohara, Ami Nagar Sarai, Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh, India

1.1 Introduction

During recent years, worldwide heavy rainfalls and floods, forest fires, occurrences, and the spread of new diseases, as found in the new strains of different pathogens and viruses, abnormal bacterial growth, and higher incidences of insect pests are direct indications of drastic environmental changes globally. It is now well established and documented that anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are the main reason for the climate change at global level. It is also well recognized that agriculture sectors are directly affected by changes in temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration in the atmosphere. Thus, early and bold measures are needed to minimize the potentially drastic climate impacts on the production and productivity of various field crops. In most of the developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Asia Pacific regions, about 70% of the population depend directly or indirectly for its livelihood on the agriculture sector and most of this population lives in arid or semiarid regions, which are already characterized by highly volatile climate conditions (Yadav et al., 2015).

Food, from staple cereal grains to high protein legumes and oilseed crops, is central to human development and well‐being (Misselhorn et al., 2012); however, the complexity of global food security is challenging and will be made more so under climate change. The world continues to face huge difficulties in securing adequate food that is healthy, safe, and of high nutritional quality for all (Redden et al., 2014a). Considering the complexity of climatic change, the crop, plants, and livestock are inherently affected by too much or too little water, too high or too low temperatures, the length of the growing season, seasonal variation, other climatic extremes, etc.

If we consider weather extremes during 2010 – 11, in Russia there were severe heat waves and approximately 30% of grain crops were lost due to burning, which resulted in huge losses to the Russian economy. Likewise, in Pakistan, the worst floods in 80 years of history occurred, and it was suggested in different media reports that one–fifth of the country area and more than 14% of cultivated land were submerged. Considering the Indian weather scenarios during recent years some parts are having good rains and some parts are under drought and cultivation of many field crops is difficult in those areas and crop productivity is adversely affected.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defined climate change as any change in climate over a time period that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and this change might be due to natural climate variability or a result of human activity. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) climate change refers to a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Human activities, most importantly the burning of fossil fuels, natural causes, industrialization, and changes in land use are modifying the concentrations of atmospheric constituents or properties of the surface that absorb or scatter radiant energy. The majority of the warming observed over the last 50 years was likely due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations (IPCC, 2001) and future changes in climate are expected to include additional warming, changes in the amount of rainfall and its distribution pattern, rise in sea‐level, and increased frequency and intensity of some climate extreme events such as flood, drought, and temperature severity.

According to the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (Nakic'enovic' and Swart, 2000), the carbon dioxide concentration (CO2) in the atmosphere which was 284 ppm in 1832 will increase to approximately 550 ppm by 2050. This, in combination with other changes in the atmosphere, is likely to change the Earth's climate, making it warmer by an average of 1.8⁰C to 4.0⁰C by the end of this century (IPCC, 2007). The temperature increase is widespread over the globe, and is greater at higher northern latitudes, while land regions have warmed faster than the oceans. This warming will increase the evapotranspiration of water from wet surfaces and plants, leading to increased but more variable distribution of precipitation. The concentration of ozone (O3) will also increase as a result of industrialization and this will have a negative impact on crop growth and productivity. The global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1·8 mm/year and since 1993 at 3·1 mm/year with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and the polar ice sheets (IPCC, 2007). The annual average Arctic sea ice extent has shrunken by 2·7% per decade, with larger decreases in summer of 7·4% per decade. Mountain glaciers and snow cover on an average have declined in both hemispheres (IPCC,2007). These general features of climate change act on natural and biological systems. The changes in climate, particularly increases in temperature have already affected a wide range of physical and biological systems in many aquatic, terrestrial and marine environments in various parts of the world. The climate change will increase the risks of extinction of more vulnerable species and loss of biodiversity. The extent of damage or loss and the number of systems affected would increase with the magnitude and rate of climate change. The human systems that are sensitive to climate change mainly include water resources, agriculture and forestry, coastal zones and marine systems, human settlements, and human health. The extent of the vulnerability of these systems depends on the geographical location and environmental conditions. The projected adverse impacts of climate change on human systems (IPCC, 2001) include: i) a general reduction in potential yields of crops in most of the tropical and sub‐tropical regions for increases in atmospheric temperature; ii) a general reduction in potential crop yields in most of the regions in Mid‐latitudes due to increases in annual average temperature of more than a few ⁰C; iii) decreased availability of potable water for populations in many water‐scarce regions, particularly in the Sub‐tropics; iv) increased incidences of vector‐borne and water‐borne diseases and an increase in heat‐stress mortality; v) increased risk of flooding for many human settlements because of increased occurrences of heavy precipitation and also a rise in the sea‐level; and vi) a general increase in the demand for energy due to higher summer temperatures in different parts of the world. Climate change is also known to have some beneficial effects on the human system (IPCC, 2001). The positive impacts of climate change include: i) an increase in the potential yields of some crops in some of the regions in Mid‐altitudes for increases in temperatures of less than a few ⁰C; ii) a potential increase in global supply of timber from well managed forests; iii) an increase in the availability of water in some water‐scarce regions in some parts of Southeast Asia; iv) A decrease in the winter‐mortality in mid‐ and high altitudes; and v) reduced demand for energy due to higher winter temperatures.

1.1.1 Climate Change and Agriculture

The world population will continue to grow and is expected to reach 9.1 billion by 2050 (Charles et al. 2010). The total food production will have to be increased by 70–100%, if all these people are to be fed sufficiently (Smil, 2005; World Development Report, 2008). Increasing food production to feed this ever‐increasing world population in a sustainable way is a great challenge, moreso at a time of rapid environmental change with rising temperatures and extreme climate events threatening food production globally. Agriculture is inherently sensitive to climate variability and change, as a result of either natural causes or human activities (Wheeler and Braun, 2013). Climate change caused by emissions of greenhouse gases is expected to directly influence crop production systems for food, feed, or fodder; to affect livestock health; and to alter the pattern and balance of trade of food and food products. Climate change has already started affecting agricultural growth and these impacts will vary with the degree of warming and associated changes in rainfall patterns, as well as from one location to another. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014), climate variations affect crop production in several regions of the world, with negative effects more common than positive, and developing countries highly vulnerable to further negative impacts. Climate change is estimated to have already reduced global yields of maize and wheat by 3.8% and 5.5% respectively (Lobell et al., 2011), and several researchers predicted steep decreases in crop productivity when atmospheric temperatures exceed critical physiological thresholds of agricultural crops (Battisti and Naylor, 2009; Wheeler et al., 2000).

Climate change is already happening and represents one of the greatest environmental and societal threats facing the planet and our own existence. With the Paris Agreement on Climate Change in force this month and the skeptics who threaten its implementation, the time for bold and unprecedented action has never been more critical. For the livelihoods of the so‐called forgotten billion, who live in dryland, on the margins of environmental sustainability, and where the harshest climate change scenarios are the fact of life, such action is vital!It is expected that drylands will expand by 11% by 2100 due to climate change. Fifteen out of 24 ecosystem services are already in decline, making drylands increasingly unproductive. About 10% of drylands are already degraded, and more land will continue to degrade in the upcoming years. Yet, drylands and agricultural research in drylands do not receive much attention or investment from the wider community of scientific research, development agencies, policy makers, or the private sector. This is in part due to huge misconceptions or oversimplifications socioeconomic factors, and the valuable things we can learn about climate change mitigation and adaptation from examining the complex interactions of these factors in drylands.

1.1.2 Impact of Dioxide on Crop Productivity

An important change for agriculture system is increased concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. As per the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES), the atmospheric CO2 concentration is projected to increase to >550 ppm by 2050 and 800 ppm by 2100. Higher concentrations of CO2 will have a positive effect on many crops resulting in enhanced accumulation of biomass and the overall yield. However, the magnitude of this effect varies depending on type of management of crop (e.g. irrigation and fertilization regimes) and also crop type. Experimental yield response to elevated CO2 show that under optimal growth conditions, crop yields increase at 550 ppm CO2 in the range of 10% to 20% for C3 crops (such as wheat, rice, and soybean), and only 0–10% for C4 crops such as maize and sorghum (IPCC, 2007). It has been projected that in the next few decades, CO2 trends will be likely to increase global crop yields approximately by 1.8% per decade. The impact of climate change on nutritional quality of agricultural produce is not properly understood. However, some cereal and forage crops, for example, show lower protein concentrations under elevated CO2 conditions (IPCC, 2001).

Some aspects of global climate change are expected to benefit agriculture. It has been projected that in the next few decades CO2 trends will likely increase global crop yields by roughly 1.8% per decade (IPCC, 2001). The increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere can have a positive impact on the rate of photosynthesis, particularly in C3 plants. Rising CO2 is estimated to account for approximately 0.3% of the observed 1% increase in global wheat production (Fischer and Edmeades, 2010). The free air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) experiments have shown that the average yield increase of C3 species was 11%, but no significant responses in case of C4 species such as maize and sorghum (Long et al., 2005). The CO2 affects the water use by crop plants because higher concentrations cause partial closure of stomata, and the decrease in the aperture of stomata reduces the rate of water consumption. The FACE experiments in potatoes have shown that CO2 enrichment increased tuber yield by 43%, decreased water consumption by 11%, and as a result increased the water use efficiency (WUE) by about 70% (Magliulo et al., 2003). In a similar experiment on sugar beet, it was found that the amount of water consumed during the growing season reduced by 20% while yield increased by 8% (Manderscheid et, al., 2010). The magnitude of increased CO2 effects on dry matter production depends upon the illumination conditions, water availability, N supply, and the transport and storage of the photosynthates (Jaggard, et al., 2010). In all cases of FACE experiments, the relative response to enriched CO2 was generally positive when the Nitrogen amount applied was inadequate, as in the case of wheat (Kimball, et al., 1999), rice (Kim et al., 2003). Thus, the enriched CO2 atmosphere should help to sustain the crop yield even when the use of nitrogenous fertilizer is restricted to protect the environment.

1.1.3 Impact of Ozone on Crop Productivity

Ozone (O3) in the atmosphere is concentrated mostly in the upper layers of the atmosphere (Stratosphere) where it absorbs UV radiation. It is also present in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, called the troposphere or the Earth's surface. Tropospheric O 3 is a spatially and temporally dynamic air pollutant as well as a powerful greenhouse gas (Ainsworth, 2017). As a result of increased industrialization and human activities Tropospheric O3 has risen from approximately 100 ppb in the late 1800s to monthly average daytime concentrations exceeding 40–50 ppb at present (Monks et al., 2015). This increased concentration of O3 in the atmosphere has made it the third most potent anthropogenic greenhouse gas after CO2 and methane (IPCC, 2013).

The distribution of O3 over the land surface is not uniform globally. It varies from region to region and also from season to season within the region. Ozone concentrations vary from about 20 ppb in parts of Asia, the Middle East, Europe and North America (Gillespie et al., 2012). According to Ramankutty et al. (2008), croplands in parts of China, India, and the USA are exposed to higher concentrations of O3 than croplands in Australia or Brazil. In India, O3 concentrations are the highest during the spring (Rabi) crop growing season (October – April) with 8 h daily concentrations reaching 100 ppb (Roy et al., 2009). Unlike India, O3 concentrations in the Corn Belt of the Mid‐west USA are at the maximum during the summer growing season (Huang, et al., 2007). In India, O3 concentrations increased 20% from 1990 to 2013 and in the case of China its concentrations increased 13% over the same period (Brauer et al., 2016). Thus, many of the world's most productive crop growing regions are exposed to continuously increasing concentrations of O3 resulting in an adverse impact on agricultural productivity and hence food security.

Yield reductions owing to ozone pollution can start at concentrations as low as 20 ppb (Ashmore, 2002). The higher concentrations of O3 during crop growing seasons found to have significant negative impact on crop yields (Burney and Ramanathan, 2014). Feng and Kobayashi (2009) found that by 2050 probable yield reductions will be 8.9%, 9% and 17.5% for barley, wheat and rice, whereas 19.0 and 7.7% for bean and soybean, respectively. Globally, it is estimated that 4–15% of wheat yields, 3–4% of rice yields, 2–5% of maize yields and 5–15% of soybean yields are lost to O3 pollution (van Dingenen et al., 2009; Avnery et al., 2011). In the absence of stricter air pollution control, it is projected that increased O3 will further reduce wheat yields by 8.1–9.4% in China and 5.4–7.7% in India by 2020 (Tang et al., 2013). Tai et al. (2014) found that increased O3 pollution in South Asia could reduce wheat production as high as 40% in 2050. Such a trend would lead to increased demand for land area devoted to crops by as much as 8.9% in Asia in order to meet the increasing demand for food (Chuwah et al., 2015). The magnitude of negative impact of O3 on crop yield depends on the growing season temperature and water availability, and during dry years yield reductions in soybean and maize ranged from 10–20%, depending on growing season temperature (McGrath et al., 2015). Crops can experience both high background O3 concentrations throughout the growing season (termed chronic exposure) as well as acute O3 stress when concentrations exceed approximately 100 ppb that can lead to hypersensitive response and induction of cell death. By 2050 the impact of rising O3 is likely to eliminate most of the beneficial effects of yield increase due to increasing CO2 in C3 crops and cause a yield decrease of at least 5% in C4 species (Nelson, et al., 2009). As a result of the dynamic nature of O3, there may be little potential for adaptation of crops to rising O3 concentrations in the atmosphere through altered crop management practices (Teixeira et al., 2011). However, the studies with rice indicate that there is scope to select for reduced O3 sensitivity. Therefore, recent efforts are focused on breeding and biotechnological approaches for genetically improving crops that can tolerate and respond to higher concentrations of Tropospheric O3 (Ainsworth, 2008; Frei, 2015).

1.1.4 Impact of Temperature and a Changed Climate on Crop Productivity

The temperature variations and changes in the amount and distribution of rainfall associated with increased CO2 concentration and continued emissions of greenhouse gases will bring about changes in land suitability for crop cultivation and crop yields. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), global mean surface temperature is projected to rise in a range from 1.8°C to 4.0°C by 2100. In temperate latitudes, higher temperatures are expected to be beneficial to agriculture and as a result the area under agricultural cropping is likely to increase. The length of the growing period will also increase at higher latitudes and because of which there may be increased accumulation of biomass resulting in higher crop yields (Parry et al., 2004. Fisher et al. (2005) predicted that world cereal production will increase from 1.8 Gt to between 3.7 and 4.8 Gt by 2080 and much of this increase will be the result of cropping on an additional 320 million ha in the Northern Hemisphere. However, in low latitudes crop yields are likely to decrease, mainly because of increased temperature which shortens the period for grain filling and sometimes stresses the plants at the time of flowering and seed‐set. A moderate incremental warming in some humid and temperate grassland may increase pasture productivity and reduce the need for housing and for compound feed (Rosenzweig et al., 2002). There may also be reduced livestock productivity and increased livestock mortality in semi‐arid and arid pastures. In drier areas, there may be increased evapotranspiration and lower soil moisture levels (IPCC, 2001) and because of which some existing cultivated areas may become unsuitable for cropping and some tropical grassland may become increasingly arid. Temperature rise will also expand the range of many agricultural pests and diseases and increase the ability of pest populations to survive the winter and attack spring crops. In general, warming trends are likely to reduce global yields by about 1.5% per decade in the absence of effective adaptation. Thus, the increases in the atmospheric temperature are likely to impact adversely against the advantages of increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere. Extreme weather events are more likely to happen in the changed climate of the future (Gornall et al., 2010).

1.2 Climate Change and Food Security

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as a situation which exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. This definition of the FAO involves four important dimensions of food supplies: availability, stability, access, and utilization (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007). The availability refers to the availability of food of appropriate quality in sufficient quantities, supplied either through domestic production or imports. The stability relates to the stable access to food as per the demand because to be food secure, a population, household or individuals must have access to adequate amounts of food at all times. The third dimension, access, involves access by individuals to adequate resources in order to acquire appropriate foods in sufficient quantity for a nutritious diet. Finally, utilization encompasses all food safety and quality aspects of nutrition. In other words, utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation, and health care to reach a state of nutritional well‐being where all physiological needs are met.

Agriculture is not only a source of the food but also a source of income for the majority of the population. Therefore, the critical point for food security is not whether food is available in sufficient quantity but the monetary and non‐monetary resources at the disposal of the population that are sufficient to allow everyone access to adequate quantities of quality food. Climate change will affect all four dimensions of food security such as food availability or food production, access to food, stability of food supplies, and food utilization (FAO, 2006). About 2 billion out of the global population of over 7 billion is food insecure because they fall short of one or several of FAOs dimensions of food security. However, the overall impact of climate change on food security differs from region to region and over time, and also on the overall socioeconomic conditions of the population (IPCC, 2001).

1.2.1 Climate Change and Food Availability

Climate change affects agriculture and food production in complex ways. It affects food production directly through changes in agroecological conditions and indirectly by affecting growth and distribution of incomes, and thus demand for agricultural produce. The response of crop yield to climatic variations depend mainly on the species, cultivar grown, soil conditions, direct effect of CO2 on plants, and other location specific factors. The climatic changes such as atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and O3 and temperature and rainfall pattern are projected to directly influence the rates of improvement in agricultural productivity and food availability and thereby global food security in the future. Rosenzweig and Parry (1994) found that enhanced concentrations of atmospheric CO2 increase the productivity of most crops through increasing the rate of leaf photosynthesis and improving the efficiency of water use. According to them, there is a large degree of spatial variation in crop yields across the globe. In general, yields increased in Northern Europe but decreased across Africa and South America (Parry et al., 2004). Crop yields are also more negatively affected across most tropical areas than at higher latitudes and impacts become more severe with an increasing degree of climate change. Furthermore, large parts of the world where crop productivity is expected to decline under climate change coincide with countries that currently have a high burden of hunger (World Bank, 2010). Wheeler and Braun (2013) concluded that there was a robust and coherent pattern of the impacts of climate change on crop productivity globally and hence, on food availability. They projected that climate change will exacerbate food insecurity in areas that already have a high prevalence of hunger and under nutrition. A recent systematic review of changes in the yields of the major crops grown across Africa and South Asia under climate change found that average crop yields may decline across both regions by 8% by the 2050s (Knox et al., 2012). Across Africa, yields are predicted to change by –17% (wheat), –5% (maize), –15% (sorghum), and –10% (millet) and across South Asia by –16% (maize) and –11% (sorghum) under climate change. No mean change in yield was detected for rice. Knox et al. (2012) concluded that evidence for the impact of climate change on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia is robust for wheat, maize, sorghum, and millet, and inconclusive, absent, or contradictory for rice, cassava, and sugarcane.

1.2.2 Climate Change and Stability of Food Production

The stability of food production ensures supply of food in sufficient quantity as per the demand at all the time. Global climatic conditions are expected to become more variable than at present, with increases in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods, hailstorms, and droughts. Such extreme weather events can adversely affect the stability of food production and therefore food security by bringing greater year‐to‐year fluctuations in crop yields. It is projected that the areas subject to high climate variability are likely to expand in future, whereas the extent of short‐term climate variability is likely to increase across all regions globally. Droughts and floods are the dominant causes of short term fluctuations in food production in semi‐arid and sub‐humid areas of the world. If climate fluctuations become more pronounced and more widespread, such extreme events will become more and more severe and more frequent. In semi‐arid areas, droughts can drastically reduce crop yields and livestock numbers and their productivity (IPCC, 2001). The sub‐Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia are more prone to such climatic variations, meaning that the poorest regions with the highest level of chronic undernourishment in the world will also be exposed to the highest degree of instability in food production (Bruinsma, 2003).

1.2.3 Climate Change and Access to Food

Access to food refers to the ability of individuals, communities, and countries to purchase sufficient quantities of quality food as per their demand. Over the last 30 years, falling real prices for food and rising real incomes have led to substantial improvements in access to food in many of the developing countries. This increased purchasing power has allowed a growing number of people to purchase not only more food, but also more nutritious food with higher contents of protein, micronutrients and vitamins (Schmidhuber and Shetty, 2005). East Asia and to a lesser extent the Near‐East/North African region have particularly benefited from a combination of lower real food prices and robust income growth (FAO, 2006). In both regions, improvements in access to food have been crucial in reducing hunger and malnutrition. Fischer et al. (2005) discussed the impact of climate change on agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and prices. At global level, the impacts of climate change are likely to be very small; the estimates range from a decline of ‐1.5% to an increase of +2.6% by 2080. At regional level, the importance of agriculture as a source of income can be much more important. In these regions, the economic output from agriculture itself will be an important contributor to food security. The strongest impact of climate change on the economic output of agriculture is expected for sub‐Saharan Africa, which means that the poorest and already most food‐insecure region is also expected to suffer the largest contraction of agricultural incomes due to climate change. Agriculture is the main source of food as well as income in many developing regions of the world. Climate change poses a serious threat to food access for both rural and urban populations by reducing agricultural production and incomes, increasing risks and disrupting markets (Olsson et al., 2014).

1.2.4 Climate Change and Food Utilization

A proper utilization of food required for attaining nutritional well‐being that depends upon water and sanitation will be affected by any impact of climate change on the health of the environment (Wheeler and Braun, 2013). Climate change will affect the ability of individuals to utilize food effectively by altering the conditions for food safety and changing the disease pressure from vector, water, and food‐borne diseases (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007). Climate change directly affects safety of the food. The changing climatic conditions can initiate a vicious circle where infectious disease causes or compounds hunger, which in turn, makes the affected populations more susceptible to infectious disease. The result can be a substantial decline in labor productivity and an increase in poverty and even mortality. The increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events due to climate change such as drought, higher temperatures, or heavy rainfalls have an impact on the disease pressure, and there is growing evidence that these extreme changes affect food safety and food security (IPCC, 2007). The report also emphasizes that increases in mean daily temperatures will increase the frequency of food poisoning, particularly in temperate regions. The rising temperatures are reported to be strongly associated with increased incidences of diarrheal disease in adults and children. Similarly, extreme rainfall events can increase the risk of outbreaks of water‐borne diseases particularly where traditional water management systems are insufficient to handle the climate extremes (IPCC, 2007). The impacts of heavy precipitations and flooding will be felt more strongly in environmentally degraded areas and where sanitation and hygiene is lacking. All these events will raise the number of people exposed to different diseases and thus lower their capacity to utilize food efficiently.

Wheeler and Braun (2013) proposed six general rules on the impact of climate change on food security and actions to address hunger:

Climate change impacts on food security will be worst in countries already suffering high levels of hunger and will worsen over time.

The consequences for global under nutrition and malnutrition of doing nothing in response to climate change are potentially large and will increase over time.

Food inequalities will increase, from local to global levels, because the degree of climate change and the extent of its effects on people will differ from one part of the world to another, from one community to the next, and between rural and urban areas.

People and communities who are already vulnerable to the effects of extreme weather now will become more vulnerable in the future and less resilient to climate shocks.

There is a commitment to climate change of 20 to 30 years into the future as a result of past emissions of greenhouse gases that necessitates immediate adaptation actions to address global food insecurity over the next two to three decades.

Extreme weather events are likely to become more frequent in the future and will increase risks and uncertainties within the global food system.

All of these general rules support the need for considerable investment in adaptation and mitigation actions to prevent the adverse impacts of climate change on food security and eradicating global hunger and under nutrition.

1.3 Predicted Impacts of Climate Change on Global Agriculture, Crop Production, and Livestock

The agricultural sector is directly affected by changes in temperature, precipitation, and CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere, but it also contributes about one‐third to total GHG emissions, mainly through livestock and rice production, nitrogen fertilization, and tropical deforestation. Agriculture currently accounts for 5% of world economic output, employs 22% of the global workforce, and occupies 40% of the total land area. In the developing countries, about 70% of the population lives in rural areas, where agriculture is the largest supporter of livelihoods. This sector accounts for 40% of gross domestic product (GDP) in Africa and 28% in South Asia. However, in the future, agriculture will have to compete for scarce land and water resources with growing urban areas and industrial production (Campen, 2011).

Creating more options for climate change adaptation and improving the adaptive capacity in the agricultural sector will be crucial for improving food security and preventing an increase in global inequality in living standards in the future (Smith, 2012). Droughts and floods have always occurred at local level, but they are predicted to increase in intensity and frequency over this century. Severe events can devastate agricultural environments, economies, and livelihoods of millions globally. Climate change and disaster risk management are not confined to only some geographic regions.

Wheeler and von Braun (2013) point out that the patterns of models on climate change impacts on crop productivity and production have largely remained consistent over the past 20 years, with crop yields expected to be most negatively affected in tropical and subtropical regions and to overlap with countries that already carry a high burden of malnutrition. Projections for the near term (20–30 years) predict that climate variability and extreme weather events will increase and affect all regions with increasing negative impacts on growth and yield, leading to increased concerns about food security, particularly in sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia (Burney et al., 2010; SREX, 2012).

Major climate change impacts by 2030 are expected for maize with a 30% yield reduction in South Africa as well as reductions in China, South, and Southeast Asia (Lobell et al. 2008). Production of wheat, rice, millet, and Brassica crops are predicted to be reduced in these regions, by up to 5% in South Asia, with severe impacts in India because of less food per capita (Population Reference Bureau, 2007; Knox et al., 2012).

Desert encroachment is expected in the West African Sahel with reduced production of sorghum, although millet and cowpea production may rise. In tropical West Africa, yields of peanuts, yams, and cassava are likely to decline. Central Africa may see reduced production of both sorghum and millet. East Africa may have an increase in yield for barley but a reduction for cowpea (Redden et al., 2014a)

In the Pacific Islands and other low‐lying island areas, the impacts of erosion, increased contamination of freshwater supplies by saltwater incursion, increased cyclones and storm surges, heat, and drought stress are all expected to have a negative toll on food production (Barnett, 2007).

The growing season is likely to lengthen at high boreal latitudes such as in Nordic Europe, Siberia, Greenland, and Canada. This will result in widening agricultural opportunities, albeit with possible extreme weather fluctuations. Such changes could provide opportunities for underutilized and semi‐domesticated local crops, for example, fruit species from Siberia will have the opportunity to be more widely grown in new cultivation niches and also provide benefits for their health food properties (Holubec et al., 2015). Such changes may result in the changing or developing of markets for novel crops and new utilization.

1.3.1 Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience

The following paragraphs on climate change mitigation, adaptation, and resilience has been reproduced by the author from Chapter on Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture Production, Food, and Nutritional Security (Yadav et al., 2015) in the book on Crop Wild Relatives and Climate Change, First Edition Edited by Redden, Yadav, Maxted, et al. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Never before in the history of humanity has there been such focus by the world scientists and farmers on securing future food production. Poor people and farming communities living in regions already being impacted by climate change are already developing effective community‐based adaptation strategies (Ensor and Berger, 2009; IFAD, 2010; Conway, 2012).In other areas identified as being at high risk from the effects of climate change, farmers communities, and villages are being assisted in the development of Climate‐Smart Villages (http://ccafs.cgiar.org/climate‐smart‐villages# Uxl8JreYbcs), while yet others are working to achieve more resilient landscapes by strengthening technical capacities, institutions, and political support for multi‐stakeholder planning and governance for Climate‐Smart Landscapes (Scherret al., 2012). The challenge is to actively seek strategies to adapt to climate change and ensure that productivity can keep pace with the demand of a growing population within a finite natural resource base (Reynolds and Ortiz, 2010). This will require a holistic and integrated approach, which, among other things, will benefit from the availability of stress‐tolerant germplasm. Such strategies need to be linked to more efficient and sustainable crop and natural resource management enabled by effective policy support. This will require a worldwide concerted effort by scientists, farmers, development agencies, and donors, if we are to meet the growing demand for food by ensuring resilient agricultural and food systems

Closing the yield gap and increasing crop production will play a pivotal role with greater access to the worlds genetic resources and their enhanced utilization by farmers and breeders of genetic methods worldwide. A better understanding of crop physiology and genetic sequencing technology means that a more targeted approach to selection across multiple traits is now possible, leading to the development of new crop varieties for future challenging environments (Godfray et al., 2010). This will necessitate much greater utilization and sharing of the plant genetic diversity that currently exists in the more than 1700 gene banks globally by the worlds plant breeders (Guarino and Lobell, 2011; McCouch et al., 2013).

1.3.2 Mitigation

Reynolds and Ortiz (2010) and Cribb (2010) highlight that crop production mitigation strategies include improved soil management practices; mulch and cover cropping; conservation tillage; more efficient N utilization, improved rice cultivation techniques, and improved manure management practices that will reduce methane and nitrous oxide emissions. These will require new crop varieties and different crop combinations and management systems where agronomic practices have been modified (Hodgkin and Bordoni, 2012). Crop production systems may be able to mitigate climate change through the breeding of crop varieties with reduced carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions (Reynolds and Ortiz, 2010).

1.3.3 Adaptation and Resilience

The increased use of agricultural biodiversity, especially plant genetic resources, will play an important role in improving both adaptability and resilience of agricultural systems (Lin, 2011; Hodgkin and Bordoni, 2012). Lin (2011) highlights that crop diversification can increase adaptation and resilience in a range of ways, including enhanced capacity to suppress pest and disease outbreaks, as well as buffering crop production from the impacts of greater climatic variability and extreme weather events. Areas with greater diversity were found to be more resilient and to recover more rapidly in Honduras following recent hurricanes (Hodgkin and Bordoni, 2012). A recent worldwide review of 172 case studies and project reports demonstrate that agricultural biodiversity contributes to adaptation and resilience through a range of strategies, often integrated, that include protection and restoration of ecosystems, the sustainable use of soil and water resources, agroforestry, diversification of farming systems, adjustments in cultivation practices, and the use of crops with various stress tolerances and crop improvement (Mijatovic et al., 2013).

While certain levels of adaptation will be achieved by moving new crops and crop varieties to more favorable environments, crop improvement through plant breeding and the incorporation of new genes will be as important (Guarino and Lobell, 2011). Hodgkin and Bordoni (2012) highlight crop traits for adapting to changing climate and changing production environments: pollination and the setting of seed under elevated temperatures and enhanced resilience and adaptability in the face of increasingly variable production conditions and increased frequency of extreme events.

We must make much better use of the genetic diversity that currently exists, both in gene banks and in situ. It will require global efforts to secure and safeguard the large amount of crop wild relatives (CWR) (and other Plant Genetic Resources (PGR)) not already in storage and improved availability of prebreeding/germplasm enhancement efforts that can develop novel genetic material (with resistances to changing distributions and populations of insect pests/diseases and tolerances to drought, flooding, salinity, heat, and cold), with systems such as GENESYS to link gene banks and users so information on Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) is more readily available (Guarino and Lobell, 2011; Hodgkin and Bordoni, 2012).

Burke et al. (2009) have examined the likely future shifts in crop climates in sub‐Saharan Africa and explore what might be the priorities for crop breeding and the conservation of crop genetic resources for agricultural adaptation. They conclude that most African countries will have novel climates in at least 50% of their current cropping area by 2050. Often, there will be analog climates already existing in the current climates of at least five other countries, this highlights the key role for international movement of germplasm in future adaptation. However, the few existing climate analogs for some countries were largely clustered in the Sahel. Reliance on just three cereals (rice, maize, wheat) and a few other carbohydrate‐rich staples might be sufficient to attain food security, but if nutritional security is to be addressed as well, diverse diets that include a range of grains, pulses, fruit, and nutrient‐dense vegetables constitute a common‐sense approach to good health (Fanzo et al., 2013).

The neglected and underutilized species diversity and the range of adaptive traits and characteristics they possess represent an important resource for climate change adaptation. Unfortunately, they remain largely ignored by researchers and policymakers. Increased efforts will be needed to secure diversity of crops and their wild relatives. Climate change threats posed to crop diversity and CWR will require enhanced complementary actions for both in situ and ex situ conservation, which will need to be adapted to face the growing threats posed by environmental and climate change (Hodgkin and Bordoni, 2012).

1.3.4 Policies, Incentives, Measures, and Mechanisms for Mitigation and Adaptation

It is likely that future international agreements and collaboration will become even more important between countries and their genetic resources. Future climate scenarios are likely to make countries even less reliant on their own national genetic resources and more dependent on those of other countries. The role of the International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and its Multilateral System (MLS) mechanism is therefore likely to become even more important in facilitating this interdependence and collaboration, though a major question remains as to whether the list of crops currently addressed by the treaty is sufficient under changing climate (Hodgkin and Bordoni, 2012). Further, although the treaty has been in force since 2004 and has 121 contracting parties, bottlenecks to facilitated access still remain and will need to be addressed if future access and sharing is expected to intensify (Bjornstad et al., 2013). Regulations and financial incentives to facilitate efforts to improve land management, maintain soil carbon content, and make more efficient use of agricultural inputs, especially fertilizers and irrigation, will be required (Cribb, 2010; Wreford et al., 2010).

Lin (2011) points out improvements are urgently required to the policy realm if crop diversification strategies are to be adopted more widely, stressing that to date efforts to promote greater adoption of crop diversification has been slow and attributes this to market incentives only for select few crops, the drive for biotechnology strategies, and a commonly held belief that monocultures are more productive than diversified systems.

Financing mechanisms to fund the response to climate change will run into billions of dollars requiring huge transformations in investments across many sectors (IFAD, 2010). Climate change will add dramatically to the cost of doing development with between US$49 billion and US$171 billion per year, estimated as required for adaptation alone by 2030. Carbon markets, relevant national policies, multilateral financial institutions, bilateral and multilateral aid agencies all have important roles to play in helping to mobilize the resources required (Wreford et al., 2010).

1.4 Impact of Divergent & Associated Technologies on Food Security under Climate Change

At global level it is not only the research organizations and governmental bodies who are exploring various approaches to increase food production, safe storages of argo‐products, divergent utilization of food items, and quality seed production and distribution, etc. Scientific communities are adopting different technologies for maintaining regular and sustainable market supply for consumer satisfaction. Such associated technologies which are in use at different levels and are under development needs a brief discussion at this stage in this chapter. It is important to mention such technologies viz crop rotational impact on crop productivity, sustainable quality seed production and distribution of new varieties of different field crops, sustainable research and development system in field crops, cereals are deficient in amino acids which is compensated by proteins of legumes and vice‐versa, seed certification system and seeds legislation, role of improved crop varieties under climate change, role of plant quarantine in agriculture, precision agriculture practices for quality seed production, nutrient and weed management during crop production, etc. are vital for future agriculture production system under climate change globally.

Moritz Reckling et al. (2015) suggested that methods are needed for the design and evaluation of cropping systems, in order to test the effects of introducing or reintroducing crops into rotations. The interaction of legumes with other crops (rotational effects) requires an assessment at the cropping system scale. They experimented the integration of legumes into crop rotations and to demonstrate its application. The framework consists of a rule‐based rotation generator and a set of algorithms to calculate impact indicators. It follows a three‐step approach: (i) generate rotations; (ii) evaluate crop production activities using environmental, economic and phytosanitary indicators; and (iii) design cropping systems and assess their impacts. It was observed that cropping systems with legumes reduced nitrous oxide emissions with comparable or slightly lower nitrate‐N leaching and had positive phytosanitary effects. In arable systems with grain legumes, gross margins were lower than in cropping systems without legumes despite taking pre‐crop effects into account. Forage cropping systems with legumes had higher or equivalent gross margins and at the same time higher environmental benefits than cropping systems without legumes.

Given the negative side‐effects of many current agricultural practices, along with changes in both climate and international trade conditions, novel and resource‐efficient production methods are needed. In Europe, less than 30% of the plant‐based protein supplement fed to livestock is produced within the continent (Bouxin, 2014; Bues et al., 2013). Moreover, rotations have become very narrow and their sustainability is often questioned (Tilman et al., 2002). In order to design more sustainable cropping systems, new methods are required.

Interactions between crops are an important component of how changes in cropping systems impact on their agro‐economic and environmental performance. Fertilization, nitrogen mineralization, nitrate leaching, greenhouse‐gas emissions, infestations with pests, diseases and weeds, and eventual crop yield are all affected not only by the management of the individual crops but also by long‐term processes that are influenced by crop sequence (Bachinger and Zander, 2007; Detlefsen and Jensen, 2007; Dogliotti et al., 2003).

Sain Dass et al. (2017) in a personal communication observed that the paradigm shift in global agriculture is bound to come when combination of crop productivity positively linked with soil fertility including health, crop growing environment and nutritional security. The favorable combination of all these factors during cropping season will provide a path to sustainable agriculture production system under climate change. To achieve the proposed shift, the role of quality seeds is extremely important to maintain the seed replacement ratio in the agriculture production system and in achieving the higher productivity of different field crops globally. They feel that the combined and integrated approaches during crop cultivation system involving improved crop varieties, maintenance of good soil health, favorable crop‐growing environment, appropriate management of plant nutritional security, and planting of quality seed by farming communities under climate change is needed for sustainable agriculture production system to meet the future challenges of food security.

Reardon (2016) suggested that the supply chain transformation can move the world toward greater food security. For small‐scale farmers and rural entrepreneurs, the road to alleviating poverty and increasing incomes will increasingly run through cities. To meet urban food needs and realize the promise of agriculture for reducing global poverty, it is critical that the development of food systems includes small farmers and the small rural enterprises along the supply chain.

1.4.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

a strategy which combines all practical methods of managing pests including biological, cultural, physical and chemical methods in a manner that attains the producer's production goals while minimizing economic, health and environmental risks

For example, approximately 18% crop yield loss occurs annually due to pest incidence in India alone, and the situation at global level is not much different than India. In a personal communication and discussion with D.B. Ahuja, Director, National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, (Email:[email protected] Web: www.ncipm.org.in) such damages were discussed, which suggested that these crop yield losses are of high order but differ, however from place to place and year to year. Under climate change such losses needs to be minimized so that the potential crop yield can be harvested and can be utilized to meet the food security challenges globally.

1.4.2 Technological Options for Boosting Sustainable Agriculture Production

It is now clearly understood that under climatic change there will be a great demand for quality and for nutritive food products to meet the challenges of food security at global level. Thus, technological options which have been developed internationally should be explored for public adoption globally. The major technologies involve those targeting hybrid, quality seeds, climate smart production technologies like conservation agriculture, water efficient technologies like drip/sprinkler irrigation and laser levelling, crop intensification and diversification like cropping and farming systems, Biofortified food like quality protein maize (QPM) and micronutrient enriched food, food processing and value chain management like silos, storage infrastructure and their maintenance, food processing, cold chain management, etc. All such technologies are potential source for increased agriculture production and food security under climate change.

1.4.3 Mechanization in Agriculture Sector

The labor requirement in agriculture is a big challenge among farming communities to carry out the various field operations during cropping season at global level. These challenges under climate change will create more and more difficulties in field operations for increased food production. Thus, it is important to understand the nature of these challenges for the production systems of various field crops. If these challenges worked out scientifically and adopted at village levels systematically then food production can be sustained successfully under climate change. Thus, farm machineries for land preparation, planting operations, intercultural, harvesting, threshing, seed processing, seed storages, transportation, etc. are important for small and large holding farmers separately. With the utilization of suitable farm machineries at village levels, the labor cost can be minimized, optimization in various field operations can be achieved, farm efficiency can be increased manyfold, irrigation system can be efficiently improved, and crop diversification can be achieved. All such activities will promote a sustainable agriculture production system including productivity, profitability, and stability at farm level and will enhance the food and nutritional security under climate change.

1.4.4 Food Processing and Quality Agro‐Products Processing

Under climate change it is imperative that postharvest technologies including food processing and development of value addition chain of agro‐products is important for food security. The life style is changing globally, rapid urbanization is happening, while increased literacy, women in the workforce, rising per capita income, etc. are leading to rapid growth and new opportunities in the agriculture sector globally. With these changes the challenges in the food sector are increasing day by day. Thus, it is imperative to bring rapid transformational changes in the food processing sector and in establishing the value addition chain of various quality agro‐products globally to meet the big challenges of food and nutritional security under climate change. The transformational changes are more relevant during storages of such agro‐products and distribution among consumers at city and village levels throughout the world. Additional financial obligations and resources are needed for the establishment of new processing and storage facilities which should be ensured by the world leaders in respective countries in each continent. This will ensure sustainable food and nutritional security under climate change at global level in the years to come.

Judith Ann Francis and Arnold van Huis (2016) suggested that the task of achieving sustainable intensification of agriculture is now one of the greatest intellectual, social and economic challenges to feeding a world population that is projected to reach 9 billion by 2050. While yields can be increased using available technologies (e.g. certified seeds, irrigation and small‐scale machinery) – for example cereals in Sub–Saharan Africa (SSA) under traditional low‐input production systems yield less than 1 t/ha – the reality is that this will not be simple. Success will depend on the nature of the policy and institutional framework, the physical and human infrastructure, as well as the ease with which knowledge, financing and markets can be accessed, and the assurance that remunerations for public and private investors, including smallholder farmers, will be attractive under internationally accepted trading norms. To achieve the goal of inclusive development, the various options (technological, social, environmental and economic) will have to be assessed rigorously through the active engagement of multiple stakeholders and by embracing different perspectives.

1.4.5 Planning, Implementing and Evaluating Climate‐Smart Agriculture in Smallholder Farming Systems

Rioux et al. (2016) under mitigation of climate change in agriculture for a FAO book series wrote on planning, implementing, and evaluating Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Smallholder Farming Systems (SFS) and suggested imported ideas. Many smallholder farmers in developing countries are facing food insecurity, poverty, the degradation of local land and water resources, and increasing climatic variability. These vulnerable farmers depend on agriculture both for food and nutrition security and as a way of coping with climate change. If agricultural systems are to meet the needs of these farmers, they must evolve in ways that lead to sustainable increases in food production and at the same time strengthen the resilience of farming communities and rural livelihoods. Bringing about this evolution involves introducing productive climate‐resilient and low‐emission agricultural practices in farmers' fields and adopting a broad vision of agricultural development that directly connects farmers with policies and programs that can provide them with suitable incentives to adopt new practices.

The term climate‐smart agriculture (CSA) has been coined to describe the approach that aims to achieve global food security and chart a sustainable pathway for agricultural development in a changing climate. CSA seeks to increase farm productivity in a sustainable manner, support farming communities to adapt to climate change by building the resilience of agricultural livelihoods and ecosystems, and, wherever possible, to deliver the co‐benefit of reduced GHG emissions. CSA is an approach that encompasses agricultural practices, policies, institutions and financing to bring tangible benefits to smallholder farmers and provide stewardship to the landscapes that support them.

On the ground, CSA is based on a mix of climate‐resilient technologies and practices for integrated farming systems and landscape management. The evidence base and knowledge to determine the practices that work best in a given context continue to be expanded through the testing and implementation of a broad range of practices. This work is creating a better understanding about the trade‐offs that may need to be made when striving to meet the interconnected goals of food security, climate change adaptation and climate change mitigation, and about the synergies that exist between these.

1.5 The Government of India Policies and Programs for Food Security

To achieve stable food and nutritional security in India, the government of India has implemented various policies and options from time to time. The major policies are (i) National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP); (ii) Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY); (iii) Village Grain Banks Scheme; (iv) Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS); (v) Essential Commodities Act – 1955; (vi) National Food Security Mission (NFSM) – 2007; (vii) National Food Security Mission–Rice (NFSM–Rice); (viii) National Food Security Mission–Wheat (NFSM–Wheat); (ix) National Food Security Mission – Pulses (NFSM Pulses); (x) minimum support price for different field crops; (xi) grain