A History of the Jews: The Indestructible Jews, The Jews in America, and Appointment in Jerusalem

A History of the Jews

The Indestructible Jews, The Jews in America, and Appointment in Jerusalem

Max I. Dimont

CONTENTS

The Indestructible Jews

A Fable of Our Times

Preface

Introduction

Illusions of History: Man, God, and the Clash of Ideas

PRELUDE TO ACT I:

Prescription for Survival

Chronology For Act I

From Abraham To Jesus

ACT I

THE MANIFEST DESTINY

SCENE 1

The Intellectual Conception

SCENE 2

The Double Revelation

SCENE 3

Kings Without Divine Crowns

SCENE 4

Canon and Charisma

SCENE 5

The Voice of the Prophets

SCENE 6

The Call to Nationalism

SCENE 7

At the Crossroads of Fate

Prelude to Act II:

The Road to Mishna

ACT II

The Existentialist Dilemma

Chronology for Act II

From Jesus To Ben-Gurion

THE FIRST CHALLENGE

The Expanding Society of the Roman World

THE SECOND CHALLENGE

The Interim Society of the Parthian-Sassanid World

Birth of the Talmud

THE THIRD CHALLENGE

The Open Society of the Islamic World

PROGRAM NOTE

A Cross-Examination of the Crucifixion

THE FOURTH CHALLENGE

The Closed Society of the Feudal World

THE FIFTH CHALLENGE

The Regression of the Ghetto Age

THE SIXTH CHALLENGE

The Sick Society of the Scientific Age

Jews and God In the Twentieth Century

Jews and God in Communist Russia

Jews and God in Fascist Germany

From Isaiah To Hitler

The Zionist Revolution

ACT III

The Paradox Of the Diaspora

Chronology For Act III

From Ben-Gurion To The Messiah

Illusion and Reality

The Diaspora Escape Hatch

The Diaspora And The World

The Jewish Sisyphus

The Function Of Israel

The Jews in America

Introduction

American Judaism: Wasteland or Renaissance?

A Note to the Reader

I. THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE (1654–1776)

Grandees and Marranos

The Transformation of the British Anglicans into Hebraic Puritans

The Transformation of the Colonial Jews into Puritan Jews

The Collective Colonial Experience

II. "THE ANTEBELLUM INTERLUDE (1776–1840)

From Moses Mendelssohn to Napoleon Bonaparte

The Transformation of the Ashkenazi Jews into Congregational Jews

III. THE MANIFEST DESTINY (1840–1890)

The Rise And Fall Of German Scientific Judaism

The Age of the American Reform Jews

IV. THE TIDAL WAVES OF IMMIGRATION (1880–1940)

Sad Sacks And Intellectuals

The Great Confrontation

V. ZIONISTS ON THE MARCH (1850–1950)

Revolt In the Shtetl

The Great Awakening

VI. The Unique and the Universal

The Great Fusion

Jews, God, and Destiny

Bibliography

General Jewish History

Religious and Philosophic Aspects of Jewish History

Aspects of American and European History

Appointment in Jerusalem

INTRODUCTION

CHRONOLOGY

PART I. Myth, Faith, and Fact

Chapter 1 — The Seven Faces of Jesus

Chapter 2 — Appointment in Jerusalem

Chapter 3 — Four Saints in a Fight for the Gospel Truth

PART II. What the Search for the Historical Jesus Revealed

Chapter 4 — The Jewish Connection

Chapter 5 — The Political Road to the Cross

Chapter 6 — The Masterminding of a Crucifixion

Chapter 7 — A Concerto of Faith and Doubt

Chapter 8 — Did Christianity Exist Prior to Jesus?

Chapter 9 — The View from Paul's Mind

Chapter 10 — Christian Gnostics and Their Scandalizing Gospels

PART III. The Aftermath

Chapter 11 — The Troika of Moses, Jesus, and Paul

Bibliography

About the Author

The Indestructible Jews

A FABLE OF OUR TIMES:

On the wall of a subway station in New York someone had scrawled:

God is dead.

—Nietzsche

Someone else had crossed it out and scrawled underneath:

Nietzsche is dead.

—God

Preface

For all too long, Jews and Christians have distorted Jewish history with so many pious frauds and smothered it with so much pious mythology that at times it has been difficult for scholar or layman to perceive its real grandeur.

It was not always thus. The Old Testament, most of it unequaled for sheer narrative skill, gives us an entirely different picture of Jewish history—proud, grand, and dynamic. It is also the first historical record, in the modern sense of the word, so accurate that an archaeologist can go to where the Bible said things happened and find the evidence.

The Greeks and Romans patterned their historical writings on the Jewish idea of history as a continuous biography of a people. But with the decline of Greece and the fall of Rome, the writing of objective history disappeared for close to a thousand years.

After the Renaissance it became the fashion in Church circles to denigrate Jewish history in order to ennoble the Christian view of things, thus reducing Jewish history to a meaningless, minor footnote. In ghetto circles, it became fashionable to count dead Jews in order to enhance Jewish suffering, thus reducing Jewish history to a meaningless, boring dirge.

In the nineteenth century, with the era of the German Enlightenment (Aufklärung), so-called scientific Judaism was born. A more apt phrase would be public-relations Judaism. In their eagerness to portray Jews to Christians as nice, tolerant, taxpaying citizens, German Reform Jewish scholars began to suppress anything they thought was unfavorable to the Jews. In their works, the Jew emerged as an innocent shnook, pushed by predatory Christians to the slaughter-bench of history. Retroactively, they conferred the crown of martyrdom on Jews all the way back to Abraham.

With the twentieth century, scholars at last began to discard the stereotypes of Church, ghetto, and apologetes. Modern scholars—both Jewish and Christian—began to reexamine Jewish history with new, objective, critical eyes. Jewish scholars especially began to arm themselves with general world history, religious and secular. They let the facts fall where they would, and as obscuring myths were discarded, Jewish history was revealed in a new light.

History can be compared to a vast smörgåsbord, with the facts spread on a prepared table like exotic dishes, each vying for attention. There are two ways the historian can serve himself. He can close his eyes and help himself to a chance sampling of what the table has to offer, in which case he would have that highly praised mode of history known as objective. Or he can select those facts that suit his concept of history, in which case he would construct that highly criticized mode of history known as interpretive. We prefer the second school, because—to paraphrase an epigram by Oscar Wilde—objective history gives us the dates of everything and the meaning of nothing. Facts in themselves have no intrinsic worth other than that they happened. Meaning can come only after facts have been sifted through the human mind and clothed with value.

The same holds true for every great work of art, which is not only an aesthetic presentation but a statement of value as well. For example, the Duke of Ferrara in Browning’s My Last Duchess kills his wife because of her inability to make value judgments. In Browning’s words, the Duke’s complaint was:

Sir, ’twas all one! My favor at her breast,

The dropping of the daylight in the West,

The bough of cherries some officious fool

Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule

She rode with round the terrace—all and each

Would draw from her alike the approving speech,

Or blush at least. She thanked men, good! but thanked

Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked

My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name

With anybody’s gift.

Just as the Duke demanded from his Duchess a value differentiation between a bough of cherries and his nine-hundred-years-old name, so a reader can demand that a historian make a value differentiation between an earthquake killing a million people and a dictator ordering the murder of a like number of people. Not the quantity but the morality of the act is the meaningful factor.

One need only read the contradictory accounts of the Reformation by Catholic and Protestant scholars to appreciate the difference interpretation makes. Though all may agree on dates, names, events, they may all disagree as to their meaning and relative importance. Yet such divergences of opinion are essential, for an important task of the historian is to render a moral judgment.

There is also a presumption among many scholars that responsible thought can be expressed only in scholarly language. But thought should not hide its meaning in turgid sentences. History is too important to be smothered by obscure writing. Scholarship does not die with lucidity, or vanish in the warmth of a smile. We hold there is nothing unscholarly in writing in the American vernacular. Nor should one hesitate to employ an apt cliché which, like a metaphor in poetry, can give instant understanding.

The reader who glances through the bibliography will note the general omission of works by Jewish historians of yesteryear whose writings so greatly contributed to the popular concept of Jewish history as a saga of specialized suffering. Rather, we have emphasized the works of modern scholars who have cleared paths through a jungle of otherwise meaningless facts. If this author’s vision of Jewish history extends beyond the customary horizons, it is because he stands on the shoulders of this new breed of scholars who have pioneered in the new historiography.

Thus our views on Jews in Babylonian and Hellenic times are not based on the judgments of the nineteenth-century historians, no matter how revered their names, but on the works of twentieth-century writers like Jacob Neusner, Saul Lieberman, and Victor Tcherikover. Our concept of Jesus and his times has been fashioned not by the pious pronouncements of Christian theologians or intemperate tracts by Jewish zealots, but by the works of such objective scholars—Christian and Jewish—as Charles Guignebert, Paul Winter, and Hugo Mantel. Our observations on the Talmud and Talmudists were inspired by the scholarship of such men as Harry A. Wolfson, Louis Jacobs, and Boaz Cohen. Our understanding of the messianic eschatology was deepened by such pioneering works as The Pursuit of the Millennium, by Norman Cohn, Political Messianism, by J. L. Talmon, and A History of Messianic Speculation in Israel, by Abba Hillel Silver.

It is now my distinct privilege to express grateful thanks to four St. Louis scholars who read my book in its manuscript form and rendered valuable critical appraisals: Dr. Julius Nodel, Rabbi, Congregation Shaare Emeth, for his firm guidance of this work through the pitfalls of Jewish theology; Dr. Jalo E. Nopola, D.D., on the editorial staff of a publishing house of religious works, for his firm guidance of this work through the pitfalls of Christian theology; Dr. Alexander C. Niven, Associate Professor of History, Meramec Community College, for his critical readings of all passages pertaining to Russian and French history; and F. Garland Russell, Jr., historian and attorney, for his critical evaluation of all sections dealing with Greek, Roman, and European history. This does not mean that these scholars agree with all my interpretations. It is said that To err is human but to persist diabolical. If there are errors in these spheres, it is not because I was not warned but because I persisted in not heeding them.

And lastly my gratitude to three individuals—to my friend N. Gordon LeBert, my wife Ethel, and my daughter Gail. Gordon’s expertise in editorial work, so essential to the writing of Jews, God, and History, was invaluable in the writing of this work. My wife Ethel read each successive draft of the manuscript, rendering valuable criticisms and suggestions. And to my daughter, Mrs. Michael Goldey, an editor of a competitive publishing company, I pay tribute for having read and critiqued so discerningly her father’s manuscript.

Introduction

Illusions of History: Man, God, and the Clash of Ideas

Jewish history consists of a unique series of events—accidental or purposive—which have had the practical effect of preserving the Jews as Jews in an exile to fulfill their avowed mission of ushering in a brotherhood of man. Whether this mission was initiated by God or retroactively attributed to God by the Jews themselves in no way alters our thesis of a Jewish manifest destiny. We further contend that far from being a curse, the exile of the Jews is a blessing. It is not a punishment for sins, but a key factor in Jewish survival. Instead of dooming the Jews to extinction, it funneled them into freedom.

The unique and majestic flow of the Jewish saga is often lost sight of because it is obscured by the artificial plateaus of history known as ancient, medieval, and modern. But if we were to view history as the ebb and flow of civilizations shaped by the clash of ideas, rather than see it as the rise and fall of empires shaped by fortunes of war, we would perceive a more meaningful unfolding of Jewish destiny. To behold such a total panorama of Jewish history as it flows within the context of world history, the reader is invited to step outside the usual chronological anchorage of events and survey the past from a different frame of reference.

From this new vantage point, he will behold world history not as a succession of dynasties but as tidal waves of civilizations. He will see the Akkadian-Sumerian city-states and the Egyptian kingdom sweep in on the shores of the planet Earth, followed by the emergence of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. These in turn are inundated by the Persian tidal wave of success. Persia is washed away by the Greek idea, and the Greeks are then engulfed by the legions of Rome. Next, the Byzantine and Islamic civilizations flood over the shores of history, and feudalism rises in Europe. Finally, he will see the Modern Age wade in on the stilts of capitalism and industrialism.

But where are the Jews? We have raced through 5,000 years of history and not beheld a single one. We know they are there, somewhere, so we look again, more closely this time, and we do see them, but in a most peculiar position. They are riding cultural surfboards on the crests of these tidal waves, precariously bobbing up and down with the rising and falling fortunes of these civilizations.

As we continue to watch this phenomenon, we behold another unique sight. After the flow of a civilization has reached its high point, we see it slowly ebb and ultimately sink into the depths of historical oblivion. And we see the Jews in that civilization go down with it. But whereas each sunken civilization remains submerged, the Jews emerge time and again from seeming doom, riding the crest of a new civilization rolling in where the old one once flowed.

The Jews make their first appearance in history in the Babylonian world, about 2000 BC When the Babylonian state disappears, the Jews make their entry in the Persian Empire. As the Persian world disintegrates, they announce their debut in the Hellenic drawing room. When Rome conquers the world, they settle in Western Europe, helping the Romans carry the banners of business enterprise into barbaric Gaul. When the star of Islam rises, the Jews rise with it to a golden age of intellectual creativity. When feudalism settles over Europe, they open shop as its bankers and scholars. And when the Modern Age struts in, we find them sitting on the architectural staff shaping it.

If we now shift our sights from a general view of the history of civilizations to focus on that of the Jews only, we see an equally incredible succession of events. We see Jewish history begin with one man, Abraham, who introduces a new concept to the world—monotheism—which he hands to his descendants. Now Jewish history hits the roads of the world. After a nomadic existence in Canaan, enslavement in Egypt, and settlement of Palestine; after defeat by the Assyrians, captivity by the Babylonians, and freedom under the Persians; after an intellectual clash with the Greeks, strife under the Maccabeans, and dispersion by the Romans; after flourishing as mathematicians, poets, and scientists under Moslem rule; after surviving as scholars, businessmen, and ghetto tenants under feudal lords; after surviving as statesmen, avant-garde intellectuals, and concentration camp victims in the Modern Age, a small segment of these descendants of Abraham return—after a 2,000-year absence—to reestablish Israel, while the rest choose to remain in the world at large in a self-imposed exile.

Such a succession of events would be improbable were it not historic fact. What can we make of these events? Are they mere accidents of history? Are they but blind, stumbling, meaningless facts, a series of causes and effects without a definite design? Or is this improbable succession of events part of what philosophers call teleologic history—that is, a succession of events having a predetermined purpose. If so, who drafted such a blueprint? God? Or the Jews themselves?

Why would God choose the Jews as His messengers for a divine mission? Or, to use William Norman Ewer’s trenchant phrase, How odd of God to choose the Jews. The equally trenchant rejoinder by Leon Roth is, It’s not so odd. The Jews chose God. If God had a need for messengers to carry out a mission, He would have to choose someone; therefore, why not the Jews? History has proved it not a bad choice—thus far, at least, God has been able to depend on them. On the other hand, what if the Jews themselves drafted their own blueprint and then attributed it to God?

The answer depends not only on faith but on how one views history. Voltaire, representing the rationalist view, saw history as little else than a picture of human crimes and misfortunes. Jews, representing the humanistic view, attempted to invest history with a moral purposiveness. Therefore it was not survival for its own sake that guided them through the obstacle course of their history. They never jettisoned their ideology even in the hour of peril, but were forever mindful of the verse in Proverbs (29:18): Where there is no vision, the people perish. We must view the odyssey of the Jews as a clash of ideas that eventually conquered men’s minds and ushered in a new world of thought. This intellectual adventure is a leitmotif that runs through four millennia of Jewish history. And parallel to it runs that enigma of Jewish history, the Exile or Diaspora.

The term Diaspora, however, does not mean exile, for Jews do not refer to themselves as being in exile, but say they live in the Diaspora. This Greek word, meaning a dispersal, has come to signify that body of Jews not living in the state of Israel but having residence outside that land. What the Jews themselves have thought of the Diaspora through the millennia shaped their history more profoundly than did events. And in the end their unique way of thinking about themselves produced three pronounced and fundamental differences between Jewish history and the history of other peoples. What are these three differences?

First, there have been twenty to thirty civilized societies in the history of mankind, the number depending on how one defines a civilization. The usual life span of a civilization as a culture-producing entity has been 500 to 1,000 years. Then the civilization has either stagnated or disintegrated. The Jews are seemingly the only exception to this rule.

Second, the moment a people lost its country through war or some other calamity, that people either disappeared as an ethnic entity or regressed into a meaningless existence. The Jews, however, though conquered time and again, though exiled from their homeland, did not die out. Against the odds of history, they survived for 2,000 years without a country of their own.

Third, no people except the Jews has ever managed to create a culture in exile. The Jews, however, in exile created not just one but six different cultures, one in each of the six major civilizations within which their history flowed.

When we stated that the normal life span of a civilization is but 500 to 1,000 years, we were not speaking of survival in a biological sense. In such a sense, the modern Greeks are the descendants of Homer’s heroes just as much as the modern Jews are the descendants of the biblical Abraham. We are referring to the continuity of those ideas that spark a culture. When that continuity is disrupted, the culture dies. In such a sense, the Greeks today are no longer of the same culture as the Greeks of Homer’s time, and the Egyptians today are not of the same culture as the Egyptians of the time of the pharaohs. But the Jews today are still of the same culture and the same people as the Jews of yesteryear. They represent a continuum of ideas that extends unbroken 4,000 years back into history, back to Abraham.

Why is Jewish history so different? Why are the Jews seemingly indestructible? Why were they able to survive where others did not? Why were they able to create new cultures in alien civilizations, whereas others were not?

How shall we view this incredible history of the Jews? Is there an element in Jewish history which exempts it from the normal historical process of decay? Was it guided by a Divinity, or did the Jews shape their own destiny? Have historians perhaps obscured the past with too many irrelevant facts?

Consonant with our thesis that Jewish history consists of an onslaught of ideas that toppled empires and ushered in a new world thought, we must discard the usual stereotypes of Jewish history, free it from the shackles imposed on it by friend and foe, and demonstrate not only the source of its indestructibility but also the nature of its vitality. Instead of viewing Jewish history as the unfolding of political events manipulated by man—a succession of kings, wars, and betrayals—let us view it as the unfolding of a manifest drama motivated by ideas—a succession of steps leading to a brotherhood of man.

Let us suppose that a playwright, some 4,000 years ago, decided to draft a play about a people whose task would be to bring about an ultimate brotherhood of man. What are some of the difficulties that dramatizing such a unique theme would pose?

First, our mythical playwright would have to choose a people for his mission, arbitrarily or intuitively, and then he would have to embed the message so deeply into their collective consciousness that it would not be forgotten throughout the centuries it would take to accomplish such an ambitious task. He would have to think up ways and means of ensuring the survival of his chosen messenger-people. He would also have to think of some method whereby they could come into contact with all the nations on earth in order to accomplish their mission.

Now let us suppose that to solve this dual problem our playwright conceived of a special exile, which would ensure his chosen people the means of coming into contact with the nations of the world and at the same time would establish the condition for their continuous survival. Instead of beginning with an already existing people whom he would have to reeducate, he would begin with a tabula rasa, with a clean slate, on which he could inscribe the mission. Instead of choosing an entire people all at once, he would begin with one man and his family, whom he then could make the progenitor of his chosen people. Each generation would pass on to its children the sacredness of the mission. The families would grow into tribes, the tribes into a nation, and this nation would be dispersed among the people of the world. As brotherly love, especially the universal variety, could not be imposed by the sword but would have to be accepted by the mind, there would be no point in our playwright’s providing his chosen people with a retinue of brilliant generals to conquer the world. He would have to endow them with a panoply of great prophets who would inspire the ideas for conquering men’s minds.

Curiously enough, whether by blind accident, human choice, or divine design, the first 2,000 years of Jewish history seem to constitute just such a succession of fortuitous circumstances, deliberate steps, or prearranged plans that develop into a training program for survival in a coming exile. Curiously enough, the second 2,000 years of Jewish history does institute an exile for the Jews in which they are seemingly unhinged from the historical process of cultural decay. And curiously enough, there are indications that in the future third 2,000 years of Jewish history the Jewish idea of a universal brotherhood may be the only antidote to the anxieties generated by man’s indiscriminate destruction of the ecological balance of the world and the concentration of atomic power in his hands.

No dramatist could have devised a better sequence of events than that which actually happened. We are not concerned with whether what took place was an accidental sequence or a manipulated series, or whether it was God Himself who blueprinted both. Such debates should be left to chronologists, humanists, and theologians. We are impressed by the fact that whichever viewpoint one chooses in no way alters the fascinating, incredible succession of events themselves.

Though history regrettably has not provided us with such a dramatist, it has fortuitously bequeathed us a sixteenth-century Jewish kabalist, a mystic philosopher named Isaac Luria, whose ideas constitute a perfect outline for such a drama.

Facts about Luria are meager. Born in Jerusalem in 1534, and educated in Egypt, he was buried in Palestine in 1572. According to pious legends, Luria immersed himself in the Kabala at the age of six, acquiring his kabalistic wisdom in cheerless, bleak, one-room schools, which today would be considered unfit for the culturally deprived. His learning soon earned him a reputation as a saint. But Luria lived the life of an ascetic on weekdays only. On the Sabbath he came home to his wife, and sired a brood of children.

Like Jesus, Luria wrote nothing down; he merely taught. Just as we have to depend on Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John for what Jesus said, so we have to depend on the disciples of Luria for what he said. The kabalistic teachings by Luria’s apostles made a tremendous impact not only on Jewish life but on Christian thought. Via the new printing press, Luria’s thoughts in their original Hebrew and in Latin translations found their way into Jewish ghettos and Christian universities.

Luria, according to his disciples, developed a remarkable theory of the evolution of mind, matter, and history—a philosophy of the exile and the redemption of man that can be interpreted on many levels. Stripped of its metaphysical language, Luria states that all matter, thought, and human experience pass through three stages, or cycles.

The first stage Luria called the tzimtzum, the contraction. In Hegelian terminology, this would be the thesis of history, that is, the statement. This first stage is a cosmic drama that ushers in world history and the special role of the Jews. Here Luria saw a twofold action taking place. As God brings all the dissident elements of Jewish history into a thesis of world history, God also simultaneously withdraws Himself from that which he has created and retreats into an exile within Himself.

The second stage, Luria called shevirat ha’keilim, the breaking of the vessels. In Hegelian terminology, this would be the antithesis, that is, the counter-statement. In this phase, everything that had been brought together in the first stage is shattered, and the Jews are strewn as exiled lights over the face of the earth. Now both Jews and God are in exile. This second stage is a cosmological drama that determines man’s place in it. *

The third stage Luria called the tikkun, the restoration. Again, in Hegelian terminology this would be the synthesis, the joining of the statement and the counter-statement into a new, higher concept. In this stage, all that was shattered in the second is unified into a new, greater, and final totality. The process of tikkun… corresponds to the process of mundane history. The metahistorical process and… the religious act of the Jews, prepare the way for the final restitution of all the scattered and exiled lights. The redemption of Israel concludes the redemption of all things. *

We propose, in this book, to present the idea of Jewish history dramatically, by transposing Luria’s three stages into three acts, each act 2,000 years long. We shall fit the 4,000-year history of the Jews into the first two acts. Then we will permit ourselves to speculate about Jewish and world destiny in the subsequent 2,000 years—the third act.

Our first act, extending in time from Abraham to Jesus, will serve to prepare the Jews emotionally and intellectually for survival in a Diaspora. Our second act, extending in time from Jesus to Ben-Gurion, will show the Jews strewn as exiled lights throughout the Diaspora in order to accomplish their mission. Our third act, extending in time from Ben-Gurion to 2,000 years into the future, will usher in the final accomplishment of the Jews—the messianic age of man on earth.

* Gershom G. Scholem: Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism

* Ibid.

PRELUDE TO ACT I:

Prescription for Survival

When the curtain rises on the first 2,000 years of Jewish history that comprise our first act, we will note that it proceeds like a Greek predestination drama, with God seemingly the author and divine director. But whereas in a Greek predestination drama the characters are not aware of their ultimate destiny as they are pathetically driven toward it by remorseless gods, the participants in our Jewish predestination drama are told in advance what their roles are to be. Stoically, heroically, they act out these roles, even when aware of an ultimate tragedy awaiting them personally, always believing firmly in the grandeur of the final destiny of the Jews themselves.

In each of the first six scenes of our first act, God seemingly hands a script to a succession of Jewish dramatic personae—to Abraham to proclaim the monotheistic concept of God, to Moses to give the Jews the Torah, to Joshua to lead the Jews to the Promised Land, to King Josiah to start the canonization of the Old Testament, to the Prophets to universalize the Jewish concept of God, and to Ezra and Nehemiah to preserve the Jews as Jews. In our seventh and last scene, there is no divine script to guide the participants. They have to ad-lib their way to the final curtain.

With each scene, Jewish history is forced into an ever-narrowing channel, flowing toward a point of no return. Whether God is directing the Jews toward a manifest destiny or whether the Jews are guiding themselves is hard to say. One can accept either viewpoint without altering the dramatic effect or historical content. The moment a people begins to believe it acts under the orders of God, illusion becomes reality, and history is channeled into paths it might otherwise not have taken.

The ideas contained in the first act profoundly affect not only Jewish history but world history. They successively shape Jewish character and Jewish destiny. They free the Jews from time and space, train them for world citizenship, and shape them for survival in their great exile in the first century AD Though the people in this first act are insignificant in numbers, they cast a giant shadow before them. Our stage is the world, and our audience its inhabitants.

Chronology For Act I

From Abraham To Jesus

Pre-History

1,000,000 BC Future man begins his descent from trees.

100,000 BC Neanderthal man, first true species of homo sapiens, appears.

30,000 BC Asia’s Neanderthal man invades European continent and exterminates Cro-Magnon pre-man, the only native produced by Europe.

History Begins

ACT I

THE MANIFEST DESTINY

Patriarchs, Prophets, and

The Jewish Predestination Drama

(TIME SPAN: FROM ABRAHAM TO JESUS)

SCENE 1

The Intellectual Conception

As the houselights dim and the curtain goes up on the first scene of our first act, the spotlight is on one man—a pagan, a goy, a non-Jew. It is Abraham, a seventy-five-year-old Babylonian lost deep in the heart of present-day Turkey. The time is 4,000 years ago. The place is Haran, an insignificant but—as we shall see—not a God-forsaken spot on the globe.

Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah and his sons—none are Jews. They are all pagans. Biblical history from the Creation and the Flood through the Tower of Babel—all is but a vast panoramic background for the entry of Abraham, the first Jew in history.*

It cannot be said that the world was waiting for Abraham; the world could not have cared less. But after Abraham’s arrival the world changed, because of the religious revolution he fathered.

The world before Abraham had taken an inordinately long time in shaping up. Man’s descent from the trees to a seat in a spacecraft took over a million years. For 90 percent of this time span, he was a tailless, hairy, two-legged beast, wielding a club for a living and dwelling in a cave with wall-to-wall dirt floors. Around 100,000 years ago, this two-legged caveman entered his Stone Age. He now held mastery over other animals, not only with his cunning brain and dexterous hands, but with new, sophisticated weapons made of stones tied to sticks. After about 90,000 years of this borderline existence, man stood on the threshold of his first cultural revolution, the Neolithic Age, extending from about 10,000 to 3,000 BC Pottery was introduced, animals were domesticated, agriculture was invented. Stable village life developed, and man’s first cities cropped up.

The second cultural revolution was the Bronze Age, from about 3000 to 1200 BC, when man learned how to fuse copper with tin to create his first alloy, bronze. He could now exchange his ancestral stone tools for tools of metal, which paved the way for more deadly warfare and more complex village life.

The third revolution was the development of pictographic and cuneiform writing, which, around 1700 BC, culminated in the creation of an alphabet. Writing ushered in man’s first age of literature, opened the mind to science, and paved the way for the first formation of a state, with men living as a unified people under one law and one ruler.

The fourth revolution was Abraham’s religious innovation—monotheism. Abraham would have been in wholehearted agreement with Montaigne’s epigram, Man is certainly stark mad; he cannot make a worm, and yet he will be making gods by the dozens. Abraham’s concept was based on the proposition that it is not man who makes God but God who makes man. This proposition was destined to topple empires, conquer men’s minds, and create new world civilizations.

Though men began descending from the trees at about the same time all over the world independently of one another, a spontaneous transition from cave to civilization took place only in those two small wedges of the globe we know as Palestine and Mesopotamia. From here the gospel of civilization was carried to the rest of the world. The Bronze Age, pictographic and cuneiform writing, the alphabet, the monotheistic-religious revolution, the subsequent Iron Age were all conceived in this small Palestinian-Mesopotamian womb and nurtured by a small group of people speaking that group of linguistically related languages we now call Semitic. In the four and a half millennia between 5000 and 500 BC, when the Semitic peoples were the intellectual overlords of the world, the people of Europe still lived in a cultural Stone Age. The refinements of the Neolithic revolution did not reach them until several thousand years later, when Semites on the move introduced these innovations to them.

Who were these talented, inventive Semites to whom the world owes such a great debt? Until recently, we knew very little about the origins of this fascinating people. Now, thanks to the modern sciences of archaeology and linguistics, we have more factual information about the entry of the Semites on the world scene.*

The most current view is that sometime before 10,000 BC, a group of people speaking a Semitic language and living in the vicinity of the Sinai Peninsula began a three-pronged migration. One prong forked its way northeast into Palestine and Mesopotamia, becoming the progenitors of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The second migrated south into Egypt, giving rise to the Egyptian civilization.* The third, undulating west along the Mediterranean shore of Africa, got off to a bad start. History lost sight of this branch until the ninth century BC, when Semitic Phoenicians founded Carthage, which was destroyed by the Romans in the Third Punic War (146 BC). There was a later migration, around 2000 BC, when Semites from the Palestinian area settled the island of Crete, where they founded the Minoan civilization.

The busy spade of the archaeologist has unearthed evidence that history began at Jericho in 7500 BC and not at Sumer in 3500 BC From all evidence, civilization developed by giant strides in the Jordan Valley before it took hold in the Mesopotamian triangle. For 2,000 years before Sumer and Akkad, Jericho was a flourishing city, fortified with a stone wall surrounded by a moat, with brick and stone houses, streets, and running water, whose inhabitants knew of animal domestication, agriculture, crop rotation, and irrigation.

Unaccountably, this Jordanian civilization had disappeared by 4000 BC, but by that time history had already focused its lens on Mesopotamia. We do not know in which century or in what language in which people greeted the invading Semites from Sinai. We do know that the Akkadians, the first people identified as Semites in Mesopotamia, had settled there as early as 8000 BC and had perhaps even founded the city of Akkad, which bears their name.

Around 3500 BC, an enigma of history took place. Seemingly from nowhere came a roundheaded, non-Semitic, non-Aryan people we now call the Sumerians, who conquered the area around the already existing city of Sumer in Lower Mesopotamia and imposed their Mongolian-type agglutinating language on its Semitic-speaking inhabitants. The Sumerians apparently acted as a catalyst in bringing the already developing native civilization to a simmer. A millennium later, the Akkadian King Sargon I drove out the Sumerians, and soon thereafter the Sumerians vanished from history as suddenly as sin on the Day of Atonement.

Sargon I was history’s first known bastard in a basket.* Fathered by a mortal man, born of a virgin mother, abandoned by both in a basket of reeds to float to death down the Euphrates, Sargon was saved by that poor but honest couple of myth who rescue heroes in postnatal distress. Brought up as a gardener by his foster father, Akki, and surviving a love affair with the goddess Ishtar, black-bearded, gimlet-eyed Sargon I fought his way to the top of the Mesopotamian world and fused Akkad and Sumer into the world’s first empire. Under his ruthless, capable, and enlightened leadership, the Semitic civilizations received new impetus. The Semitic languages reasserted themselves, and science, especially mathematics and astronomy, reached new heights. This then was the Semitic world that gave birth to Abraham sometime between the twentieth and nineteenth centuries BC

Abraham enters history unobtrusively at the age of seventy-five. The Bible wastes no words in introducing him. With no explanation, Abraham’s aged parents pull up stakes in Ur in Babylonia and head for Canaan. When the family reaches Haran, the father dies, and Abraham has his first encounter with God.

In this first encounter of God with man—of Jehovah with Abraham—it is God who proposes a Covenant with Abraham. If Abraham will do as God bids him, then God will make Abraham’s descendants His Chosen People and will fashion them into a great nation. God does not, at this time, reveal His purpose.

God stipulates but one commandment and gives but one promise. The commandment is—all males of His future Chosen People must be circumcised as a sign of their chosenness. The promise is—the Land of Canaan.

God does not say how long it will take to fulfill the promise or how it will come about. Nor does God tell His Chosen People that they will be better than others. The inference is that they are to be different and that they are to be set apart for a mission. There is no chauvinism here, no superiority complex. How this uniqueness and this nationhood are to be brought about—whether by the sword, or the book, or both—is not made known at this time. No other commandments are spelled out. God has now, however, chosen His messenger, and the action of our drama can begin.

In spite of the indefiniteness of the Covenant, certain immediate and concrete consequences grew out of this new, bold concept of God. Because the God of Abraham has no ancestry, there is a total absence of mythological stories of His origin. Because He is immortal, there can be rebellion against His commandments but not against His life. Because creation in the Jewish view is not the result of sexuality, as in all pagan religions, the Jewish concept of the creation of Heaven and Earth, of flora and fauna, is consonant with the scientific idea of natural evolution. Substitute a million years where Genesis says a day into the Creation story, and we have the same evolutionary sequence in Genesis that we have in Darwin’s theory. Because the God of Abraham is above sexuality, the Jews did not have to provide him with a playmate as did the pagans for their gods. Pagans learned to respect the God of the Jews, who did not sneak into the beds of other men’s wives as did the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman gods. And because the God of Abraham acts with a moral purpose and preconceived plan, He is not a capricious God who acts on a day-to-day basis. The Jews know what God expects of them and can therefor make long-term plans.

That concepts of one’s God do create moral outlooks in man can be illustrated by comparing the story in Genesis of the binding of Isaac by his father Abraham to the story in the Iliad of the sacrifice of Iphigenia by her father Agamemnon.

In the Genesis story, Abraham stands to gain nothing by the sacrificing of his son. God promises him no favors. Faith carries Abraham to Mount Moriah; hope sustains him. Faith makes him heroic; hope makes him human. The sacrifice is never consummated; an angel stays his hand, and a sacrificial lamb is substituted for Isaac. Through this story the Jews learned that God does not want human sacrifice, not even as an act of faith, just as fifteen centuries later the Jews were to learn through their Prophets that God does not even want animal sacrifice, but can be approached through prayer, humility, and good deeds.5

In the Iliad story, an oracle advises Agamemnon, commander of the Greek forces, that only by sacrificing his daughter as atonement for a trifling crime he has committed will the gods give him the wind he needs to set sail for Troy. Agamemnon cuts the throat of Iphigenia. She is whisked away, however, still alive, by the goddess Artemis, not as a moral lesson for man, but to consecrate Iphigenia as a priestess in the temple of Artemis, where she is taught to prepare strangers as victims for sacrifice.

An interplay of Jewish and pagan themes in the Isaac and Iphigenia stories cast their shadows over Christianity. As Isaac carried the wood for his sacrificial altar on his shoulders to Mount Moriah, so Jesus carried the cross for his crucifixion on his shoulders to Mount Golgotha. Jesus expected a Jewish ending but got a pagan one. Just as Abraham looked * to heaven for God’s grace to stay his hand, so Jesus looked to heaven for God’s grace to stay the hand of fate. But as Jews did not write this script, there was no grace for Jesus. He died with a prayer from the Psalms (22:2) on his lips: Eli, Eli lama sabachtani—My God, My God, why hast Thou forsaken me?*

Once monotheism had been launched, there was no going back for the Jews. The first three generations springing from the seed of Abraham did not look upon themselves as nomads, but saw themselves as proud heirs to the Promised Land, superbly confident of the fulfillment of their destiny.

Before ringing down the curtain on this first scene, however, we need to make one last observation on the nature of Jewish monotheism. Its basic idea is pure. It has no roots, no antecedents in paganism or in anything that existed previously. By one stroke of the Jewish imagination all idols were done away with, not by conquest but by a simple dismissal. The idea of monotheism affected not only the destiny of the Jews but also the destiny of man. This Jewish concept of monotheism was to give rise to new cultures and create new art forms. It was to create a vast new literature, destined to affect the world outlook of man. As pagan empires crumbled, the Jewish idea of God prevailed. And, as the Jews saw their ideas triumph, their belief that events in their history were not haphazard but evidence of their own manifest destiny was strengthened.

It is this concept of deity that shapes the Jewish character and sets the Jews apart from the pagan world. From this concept Jewish history is born. The first requirement for conditioning the Jews for their future mission was met by their acceptance of monotheism.

* The Bible calls him a Hebrew. Although the Bible uses the term Hebrew or Israelite for the Jews, we shall use the modern term Jew throughout this work.

* For an exciting treasure of information on Semites and semantics, see At the Dawn of Civilization: A Background of Biblical History, E. A. Speiser, editor, Volume I of The World History of the Jewish People. Here, Sumerians, Hurrians, and Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, and Egyptians come to life through a vibrant scholarship that roams the field from flora and fauna to arts and linguistics.

* The ancient Egyptians were a Hamito-Semitic people. The people living in Egypt today have ethnically and racially little in common with the ancient Egyptians because of the massive intermixtures of races, peoples, and tongues that have taken place in the past 2,000 years as Egypt was raped, ravaged, and defiled in an unending succession of wars and conquests by Greeks, Romans, Mohammedans, Crusaders, Nubians, Turks, and Englishmen.

* Another famous case is that of the Roman twin bastards Romulus and Remus who were abandoned by their accidental parents in a chest left floating down the Tiber.

* The most evocative essay on the meaning of the Abraham-Isaac story ever written is Fear and Trembling by the Danish Protestant theologian Søren Kierkegaard.

* Jesus, who like his fellow Jews spoke Aramaic, the lingua franca of that century among Jews, prayed in that language, as was custom, using the Aramaic word sabachtani for the Hebrew word asavtani in the Psalms. See Matthew 27:46 and Mark 15:34.

SCENE 2

The Double Revelation

THE ATON CULT

The setting for our second scene shifts from Mesopotamia to Egypt; the time drifts from 1800 to 1300 BC When the stage lights go up the Jews are slaves; when they go down the Jews will be free men. Before our scene begins, however, let us familiarize ourselves with the background of the events about to happen.

Around 2800 BC, something incredible happened in Egypt. She leaped from infancy to maturity, skipping a cultural puberty period. By 2500 BC we are confronted with a full-blown civilization, surpassing in art, literature, and political unity anything that had been achieved in Mesopotamia, her tutor state.

But, because Egypt achieved her cultural summit early, subsequent generations were unable to improve on the original model. Having begun at the top, Egypt repeated her first experience over and over again. In spite of her precociousness, she never developed any further ideas of her own. The world has inherited nothing of consequence directly from Egypt. She had no written law, no political theories, no wealthy merchant class to give the state versatility. Hers was a priest-ridden culture in which a vast feudal officialdom of scribes, soldiers, and bureaucrats squatted like parasites on the backs of an exploited peasantry. From the First Dynasty in 2800 BC until the Thirtieth Dynasty in 400 BC, except for her periods of captivity, Egypt remained a nation apart, isolated, parochial, living upon her past inheritance like an autophagocyte, until she faded out of history. Her longevity was not due to inner resilience; it was an accidental attribute of her isolated geography on the fringe of the then civilized world. It was in this land of pharaohs, pyramids, and decay that the Jews arrived in the first half of the second millennium BC

After Abraham and his three generations of descendants—Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve sons of Jacob—had wandered back and forth between the Euphrates and the Nile, the Bible states that a portion of these nomadic Jews settled in Egypt at the invitation of one of the pharaohs. Many historians maintain that the Jews were swept into Egypt with the invading Hyksos—bands of Semitic warriors who ruled Egypt for two centuries (1750-1550).

The exact date of the Jewish debut in Egypt is still as much up in the air as the exact date of the Jewish exodus. The latest, most authoritative guess is that fate took the Jews into Egypt sometime between 1700 and 1400 BC, and that Moses led them out of their subsequent enslavement sometime between 1300 and 1250 BC

The Jews in Egypt, however, were not slaves in the classic sense of the word. They were not sold on the auction block as slaves were sold in the United States. Nor were they regarded as chattel having no rights. On the contrary, their status was more like that of indentured servants working on vast government building and land-reclamation projects alongside other enslaved peoples. The Jews had a right to exist as a community, to live according to their own laws, to practice their own religion, and to worship their one invisible God—until the time of the Exodus. Then, it seems, something happened in Egypt to change the political climate.

Around 1350 BC a religious revolution shook the land of the pyramids. A new pharaoh, Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Ikhnaton, abolished Egypt’s polytheism, the belief in many gods, substituting the cult of one sun-god, whom he named Aton. The people were afraid of this innovation. How could only one god protect them, when all their many gods were inadequate? The priests were incensed. This new, oversimplified mode of worship threatened their entire hierarchy and power structure. Soon a religious counterrevolution took place, aided by the fortuitous death of Ikhnaton at the age of thirty. His beautiful wife Nefertiti (his sister whom he had married at the age of twelve when she was ten) tried to keep the new cult alive.* But Nefertiti was assassinated, the new god Aton was deposed from his man-made celestial throne, and the old gods with their animal heads were reinstated in their familiar places. In the aftermath of this religious ferment and chaos, sometime during the reign of Ramses II (1292-1225 BC) the Jewish Exodus took place.

Some scholars theorize from these events that it was Ikhnaton who invented monotheism and that it was Moses, as an Egyptian prince or priest, who packaged it for export in the same way Jesus invented Christianity and Paul packaged it for export. This theory suggests that just as Paul went out and proselytized among the pagans when he found that the Jews would not buy the new religion of Christ, so Moses went out and proselytized among the Jews because the Egyptians would not buy the new religion of Aton. And just as Paul promised freedom for Roman slaves in the life hereafter if they accepted Christianity, so Moses, the theory goes, promised the Jewish slaves in Egypt freedom in this world if they accepted his Atonism.

Proponents of this view contend that several centuries after the Ikhnaton cult had become the established Jewish religion, Jewish priests eradicated from it all vestiges of Moses’ Egyptian past and gave him Jewish antecedents by fabricating the myth of the Egyptian princess finding him in the Nile. As a final retouching, to give the concept more antiquity and greater authenticity, these priests are supposed to have retroactively conferred the idea of monotheism all the way back to Abraham.

This theory seems logical and would be reasonable if only the scanty facts available supported it. But it is more plausible that the descendants of Abraham brought their monotheism into Egypt with them, as stated in the Bible, and that they lived and practiced their monotheistic religion in Egypt for three centuries prior to the reign of Ikhnaton. It is even more plausible that it was Ikhnaton who received his monotheistic concept of Aton from the captive Jews, and not vice versa. It certainly is more than mere coincidence that nowhere else in the world did such a monotheistic revolution occur except where there were Jews. Furthermore, the Jews actively engaged in proselytizing, for we read in the Old Testament that a mixed multitude accompanied the Jews in their Exodus from Egypt.

Just as in the Roman