After Christianity

INTRODUCTION

Believing That One Believes

THE ITALIAN TITLE of a recent book of mine, translated into English as Belief,¹ was Credere di credere (believing that one believes). It was a difficult title to translate, though it contained the meaning I wanted to convey in the text. The expression believing that one believes sounds paradoxical in Italian, too: to believe means having faith, conviction, or certainty in something, but also to opine—that is, to think with a certain degree of uncertainty. To clarify the title, then, I would say that the first believing has the latter meaning, while the second use of the term has the sense of having faith, conviction, and certainty. It is rather difficult to put the two meanings of the verb together: if I merely opine, if I think, I hold with some probability that I have certainty and faith. This sounds unclear as well as suspicious.

However, this expression’s meaning, unclear as it may be, seems to correspond to an experience that is widespread and comprehensible, and of which many of us are aware. As I say in my book, it came to mind one day while I was speaking on the telephone—indeed, on a public telephone set in an open space, in the midst of traffic and of chatting people—with an old professor of philosophy who was also a fervent believer. I had not seen him for a long time, and he asked me whether I still believed in God. I answered, Well, I believe that I believe. This is still my attitude today. Upon reflecting on that spontaneous response I came to understand, or I believe to have understood, that this unclear meaning of faith is entirely bound up with my experience as a scholar of philosophy, and perhaps as an intellectual belonging to this specific epoch, too. I say this without any presumption. On the contrary, I recognize that what I hold to be exemplary is such only in the sense in which people generally call an example something corresponding to a number of similar objects, a car of a certain type, or a statistical sample (which has nothing exceptional about it either).

Why, then, do I think I have understood that for those like me who have any familiarity with contemporary philosophy, but above all with postmodern life, religious belief can only have this meaning characterized by a deep uncertainty of opinion?

My itinerary toward the Christian faith, too, makes me a statistical sample, of which quite a few people who have had training similar to mine also are part. After World War II, when I was about ten years old, I used to go to the parish church, where I developed my basic attitudes toward the world and others, including my social, political, and religious interests. Indeed, it was to live up to this blend of interests that I decided to study philosophy at the university: I wanted to contribute to the formation of a new Christian humanism, which would be free from liberal individualism and from collective and deterministic Marxism. Those were the years when we—the Catholic youth—studied the works of Jacques Maritain, a distinguished neo-Thomistic and antifascist French thinker, who had written a book entitled Integral Humanism. I inherited from Maritain a diffidence toward certain dogmas of modernity. For this reason, after finishing my doctoral thesis on Aristotle, I became engrossed in the study of Nietzsche and Heidegger, who to me appeared to be the most radical critics of modernity. Now, it is precisely through these authors, who were not merely antimodern but also anti-Christian (especially Nietzsche), that I paradoxically was led back to the Christian faith, or to something that bears a striking resemblance to it.

Here I shall stop dwelling on my autobiography. Instead, I would like to explain my paradox of having recovered Christianity—in the form of believing that I believe—through Nietzsche and Heidegger. Nietzsche’s announcement that God is dead is not an atheistic thesis like God does not exist. Nietzsche could not state a thesis like the nonexistence of God because the claim to its absolute truth would have to be upheld as a metaphysical principle, that is, as the true structure of reality, having the same function as the traditional God of metaphysics. Wherever there is an absolute, even if it is the sheer affirmation of the nonexistence of God, metaphysics is always present in the form of the supreme principle, namely the God whose superfluousness Nietzsche believes to have discovered. In sum, for Nietzsche God is dead means nothing else than the fact that there is no ultimate foundation. An analogous meaning, albeit unacknowledged, is found in Heidegger’s polemics against metaphysics—the whole European philosophical tradition from Parmenides on—which believes itself capable of grasping the ultimate foundation of reality in the form of an objective structure like an essence or a mathematical truth, which is given outside of time.

Just as Nietzsche cannot state that God does not exist (otherwise he would have to say that he knows the true structure of the real), Heidegger cannot dismiss metaphysics by stating that reality has a different structure, which is not objective but rather mobile. He would still be affirming another structure. Indeed, Heidegger dismisses the metaphysical—objective, stable, and structural—conception of Being only in the name of an experience of freedom: if we exist (with our projects, hopes, aims, and fears) as finite beings who are not just appearance but rather beings who have a past and a future, then we cannot conceive of Being in accord with the objectivistic terms of metaphysics.

Actually, Heidegger’s denial of metaphysics articulates the attitude of a large part not only of philosophical thought but also of artistic, literary, and religious thought at the beginning of the twentieth century, when humanistic culture began to feel the need to rebel against the total organization of society ("die totale Verwaltung" in Adorno), which had increasingly imposed itself through the rationalization of labor and the triumph of technology.

For much of twentieth-century philosophy it is no longer possible to think of Being as foundation, not simply because of the risk that objectivism might lead to a totalitarian society—to Auschwitz or to the Gulag—but above all because European culture has become aware that there are other cultures that cannot be merely classified as primitive, that is, as lagging behind the West in the way of progress. The 1800s were the century in which the historical sciences, including cultural anthropology, arose: there was a ripe awareness that there was not just a single course of history (culminating in Western civilization) but different cultures and different histories. This awareness would be decisively advanced through the wars of liberation of the colonial nations. Algeria’s revolt against France as well as the petroleum war of the early 1970s were the last episodes within the theoretical, practical, and political rupture of Eurocentrism, i.e., of the idea of a unique human civilization of which Europe was conceived to be the leader as well as the apex.

How are all these themes—Nietzsche, Heidegger, the end of colonialism, and the Christian faith—related? It may be possible to say that the epoch in which we live today, which is rightly called postmodern, is the epoch in which reality can no longer be conceived of as a structure solidly tied to a sole foundation that philosophy would have the task of knowing, or perhaps that religion would have the task of adoring. The pluralistic world in which we live cannot be interpreted by an ideology that wants to unify it at all costs in the name of a sole truth, which some academic disciplines would have the task and capacity of knowing. This ideology would stumble against, among other things, any ideals of democracy. It would affirm, as we have recently heard many Catholic politicians say, at least in Italy, that a law wanted by the majority but without truth (i.e., in contrast with the teachings of the Catholic Church) has no legitimacy. Hence, one must infer, it is a law that does not deserve to be obeyed.

Here one might proceed in different ways. For example, one might ask how we can rationally argue once we forgo the claim of grasping an ultimate foundation that would be valid for all, above and beyond any cultural differences. To this one might answer: the universal validity of an assertion can be construed by building consensus in dialogue, though without claiming any right in the name of an absolute truth. Dialogical consensus may be reached by acknowledging that we share a heritage of cultural, historical, and technological-scientific acquisitions.

Instead, here I intend to show how postmodern pluralism has enabled (for me, though I mean it in a more general sense) the recovery of the Christian faith. If God is dead, if philosophy has recognized that it cannot with certainty grasp the ultimate foundation, then philosophical atheism is no longer necessary. Only an absolute philosophy can feel the necessity of refuting religious experience. Yet, perhaps there is something more important in Nietzsche’s announcement of the death of God. Nietzsche writes that God is dead because those who believe in him have killed him. In other words, the faithful, who have learned not to lie because it was God’s command, have discovered in the end that God himself is a superfluous lie. However, in light of our postmodern experience, this means: since God can no longer be upheld as an ultimate foundation, as the absolute metaphysical structure of the real, it is possible, once again, to believe in God. True, it is not the God of metaphysics or of medieval scholasticism. But that is not the God of the Bible, of the Book that was dissolved and dismissed by modern rationalist and absolutist metaphysics.

Furthermore, if there is no longer a philosophy (like Hegelian or Marxist historicism or like the various kinds of scientific positivism) claiming to be capable of demonstrating the nonexistence of God, we are free, again, to hear the words of Scripture. Moreover, in the postmodern end of the absolute philosophies, we become aware that once we discover that the vision of Being as eternal structure of objectivist metaphysics is untenable, we are left with the biblical notion of creation, namely with the contingency and historicity of our existing. To translate all this in secular and philosophical terms: it is above all because of the experience of postmodern pluralism that we can think of Being only as event, and of truth not as the reflection of reality’s eternal structure but rather as a historical message that must be heard and to which we are called to respond. This conception of truth is not only valid for theology and philosophy. It is the same truth that, more or less explicitly, is upheld by a large part of the sciences, at least by those that have become aware of the historicity of their paradigms.

As is well known, this term has been characterized by its usage in Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1963, whose meaning concerns us here. It is only based on certain presuppositions—methods, theorems, axioms, etc., which in turn are not verifiable or demonstrable or else one would go on ad infinitum—that the sciences verify or falsify hypotheses. The rise and fall of scientific paradigms are complex historical events, which cannot be explained according to the logic of the proof and of confutation. What occurs in our everyday language also occurs within science: we experience things in the world only on the basis of forms that we have inherited, together with the other forms of our existence. For a long time, philosophers and linguists have dismissed the idea that first we see things and then attribute them their names. On the contrary, we encounter the world already possessing forms, words, grammatical structures through which we give it order, otherwise to us the world would appear to be an indistinct mess.

Here we don’t need to develop further this mode of conceiving knowledge. I only intend to say that if we suppose, as I believe we should, that the postmodern conception of truth (understood as historical message, rise and fall of paradigms, interpretations of things in light of inherited historical languages) makes sense, it becomes possible to take the Bible seriously. Indeed, it becomes essential to take the Bible seriously, insofar as it is the principal book that has marked deeply the paradigm of Western culture. Thank God, I am an atheist, says an Italian (not too) paradoxical expression. It is only as the heir of a Judeo-Christian tradition that conceives of the real in terms of creation and the history of salvation that postmodern thought has freed itself from the objectivistic metaphysics of scientism so that it can live up to its experience of cultural pluralism, namely of the historicity and contingency of existing.

Why, then, and in what sense, can one believe that one believes? The God I have recovered after liquidating metaphysics and the illusion that one could demonstrate that the real