The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam

THE CRUSADES, CHRISTIANITY, AND ISLAM

The Bampton Lectures in America

BAMPTON LECTURES IN AMERICA

The Prospects of Western Civilization, Arnold J. Toynbee 1940

New Discoveries in Medicine: Their Effect on the Public Health, Paul R. Hawley 1950

Gospel and Law: The Relation of Faith and Ethics in Early Christianity, Charles H. Dodd 1951

Art and Technics, Lewis Mumford 1952; reprinted with a new introduction by Casey Nelson Blake 2000

Modern Science and Modern Man, James B. Conant 1952

Challenges to Contemporary Medicine, Alan Gregg 1956

The Idea of Revelation in Recent Thought, John Baillie 1956

Four Steps Toward Modern Art: Giorgione, Caravaggio, Manet, Cezanne, Lionello Venturi 1956

Science in the Making, Joel Henry Hildebrand 1957

Prescription for Survival, Brock Chisholm 1957

The Importance of Being Human: Some Aspects of the Christian Doctrine of Man, Eric Lionel Mascall 1958

The Art of William Blake, Sir Anthony Frederick Blunt 1959

From Miasmas to Molecules, William Barry Wood 1961

Christianity and the Encounter of the World Religions, Paul Tillich 1963

A Natural Perspective: The Development of Shakespearean Comedy and Romance, Northrop Frye 1965

Man in the Universe, Fred Hoyle 1966

Mental Illness: Progress and Prospects, Robert H. Felix 1967

The Religious Significance of Atheism, Alasdair MacIntyre and Paul Ricoeur 1969

Victorian Architecture: Four Studies in Evaluation, Sir John Summerson 1970

Magic, Science, and Civilization, Jacob Bronowski 1975

Titian: His World and His Legacy, David Rosand, ed. 1982

Faith and Reason, Anthony Kenny 1983

Language and Information, Zellig Harris 1988

The Painter’s Practice: How Artists Lived and Worked in Traditional China, James Cahill 1994

THE CRUSADES, CHRISTIANITY, AND ISLAM

Jonathan Riley-Smith

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS       NEW YORK

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS

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cup.columbia.edu

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Copyright © 2008 Columbia University Press

Paperback edition, 2011

All rights reserved

E-ISBN 978-0-231-51794-2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Riley-Smith, Jonathan Simon Christopher, 1938–

The crusades, Christianity, and Islam / Jonathan Riley-Smith.

p.   cm.—(Bampton lectures in America)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-231-14624-1 (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-231-14625-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-231-51794-2 (electronic)

1. Crusades. 2. Christianity and other religions. 3. Islam—Relations—Christianity.

I. Title. II. Series.

D157.R536    2008

909.07—dc22                                   2008001201

References to Internet Web sites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor Columbia University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.

A Columbia University Press E-book.

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE

Crusades as Christian Holy Wars

CHAPTER TWO

Crusades as Christian Penitential Wars

CHAPTER THREE

Crusading and Imperialism

CHAPTER FOUR

Crusading and Islam

CONCLUSION

Notes

Bibliography

Index

INTRODUCTION

The First Crusade was fought between 1096 and 1102. The crusading movement was at its most popular from the late twelfth century to the late fourteenth, but was still active in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The last crusade league was the Holy League, which began the recovery of the Balkans from the Turks between 1684 and 1699. The last operative order-state of a military order was Hospitaller Malta, which succumbed to Napoleon in 1798. A new military order was founded as late as 1890, although it had a very short life, as we will see. We are faced by a movement that lasted for hundreds of years and touched the lives of the ancestors of everyone today of Western European descent and of many of Eastern European, Jewish, and Muslim descent as well. No one can feel comfortable about this aspect of our collective experience, but for intellectual as well as moral reasons the role of its historians is an awkward one. In the last thirty years their understanding of the movement has led them to reject the long-held belief that it was defined solely by its theaters of operation in the Levant and its hostility toward Islam¹—with the consequence that in their eyes the Muslims move slightly off center stage—and many of them have begun to face up to the ideas and motivation of the crusaders.² The more they do so the more they find themselves contra mundum or, at least, contra mundum Christianum, because their conception of the realities of crusading turns out to be in conflict with those of nearly everyone else, from leading churchmen and scholars in other fields to the general public.

In many ways the Crusades deserve their poor reputation. Like all religious wars, they were marked by indiscipline and atrocities. As military expeditions that were also pilgrimages, they had to be open to all, sinners as well as saints—especially sinners—and there was no system for screening volunteers to identify the unsuitable, who might include psychopaths. The popes, who authorized them, lost control once the armies were on the march, and the fact that the laymen who were entrusted with leadership in the field were volunteers made adequate chains of command hard to establish. The methods employed to encourage recruitment heightened emotions in men who could then be exposed to tension and alienation for very long periods of time. Although it is hard to draw lessons from modern combat psychiatry and apply them to situations hundreds of years ago, it is known that volunteers are more likely to commit atrocities than conscripts and that over-long exposure to stress is bad for efficiency and discipline.³

Measures assuring greater cohesion and control began to be adopted in the thirteenth century. The crusaders bound for the Levant were being transported by sea, which reduced the number of noncombatants, since the poor could not afford a maritime passage, and forced the planners to think about logistics, which were less problematic now that the armies were not encumbered by hordes of the unsuitable. The decision of the papacy to raise large sums from the taxation of the church, which were then allotted to those leaders who were taking the cross, provided a means of subsidizing crusaders through their commanders and therefore of making them more amenable,⁴ while the introduction from the 1330s onward of crusade leagues enabled the states in these alliances to make use of their regular forces (if one can use that term), combining the benefits of crusading with more professional fighting elements.⁵ A huge gulf separates the scratch forces of the twelfth century from the Christian navy, which fought the battle of Lepanto in 1571, or the armies of the Holy League, which were recovering Hungary in the 1680s.

There was obviously more to crusading in the central Middle Ages than cruelty and indiscipline, but nothing can eradicate from present-day minds the impression left by those unruly armies. Among the descendants of those who perceive themselves to have been damaged by them, the Muslims and the Greek Orthodox have developed mythistories—to use a word adopted by Dr. Gary Dickson in another context—in which memories of genuine injuries have been embroidered, even re-created, long after the events concerned.⁶ The perception most modern Muslims have of the Crusades dates only from the end of the nineteenth century, as we shall see. It constituted, in fact, a transference onto the past of feelings of alienation engendered by imperialism. In the case of the Greeks it was the failure of the West to come to the assistance of the rump of the Byzantine empire in 1453—two and a half centuries after the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade—and resentment building up during the long years of subjection to the Ottomans that seem to have fanned the bitterness, although it is true that the Greek church had suffered from its refusal to reconcile itself with Latin Christianity on papal terms.

The modern reactions of the Jews, who have more right than the members of any other community to consider themselves to have been the innocent victims of the crusaders, are more complex. Pogroms marked the departure of many of the Crusades to the East in the central Middle Ages and the Jews, who memorialized their sufferings in the Ashkenazi liturgy,⁷ have naturally been inclined to link them to the Holocaust of the 1940s through a chain of terrible events extending over eight and a half centuries.⁸ In the last thirty years, however, a more focused approach has emerged among historians of the early persecutions,⁹ while those Israelis who are interested in the settlements the crusaders established in the East treat them much more positively than they did in the past, demonstrating how strongly modern priorities are echoed in interpretations of history. The establishment of the state of Israel on much of the territory occupied by the crusader kingdom of Jerusalem has led to scholarly and popular engagement with the kingdom’s history and institutions. These used to be compared very unfavorably with the achievements of modern Zionism, but they are now being portrayed in a better light. Even quite minor crusader sites in Israel are being developed as tourist centers, while Professor Ronnie Ellenblum has traced a progression

from the Jewish reading of its history, focusing on the slaughter of the Rhineland Jewish communities in 1096, to a Zionist reading of the crusades, focusing on seeing them as an inverse prefiguration of the future Zionist movement, and finally to a reading of the crusades as part of my own country, and to a certain degree, as part of my own history.¹⁰

On the other hand, leading Christian churchmen in the Western tradition—Catholic and Protestant—are not only ashamed by the fact of the Crusades but are also in a state of self-denial. Embarrassed by this aspect of their past, they have underplayed its importance in their history, while maintaining that it really had very little to do with their religion. In a recent lecture the archbishop of Canterbury stated that Most Christians would now say that … the crusades … were serious betrayals of many of the central beliefs of the Christian faith.¹¹ He was echoed by the professor of the History of the Church in Oxford, who asserted that the Crusades constituted a bizarre centuries-long episode in which western Christianity wilfully ignored its Master’s principles of love and forgiveness.¹² Pope John Paul II, who never apologized for the Crusades but gave the impression that he was doing so, would probably have agreed. The issue I have with these leading representatives of the consensus relates not to their theology but to their knowledge of history, because underlying their opinions is the belief that the crusading movement was an aberration, a departure from the norm in Christian history.

This is wish-fulfillment, stemming from a desire to reshape the past of one’s religion into a more acceptable form. As recently as the seventeenth century, and perhaps more recently still, most Christians—Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant—had in general no problem with the idea of holy war. From the twelfth century to the seventeenth the consensus of the teaching of the Catholic bishops was that qualified men had a moral obligation to take the cross. This was reinforced by the support of a succession of men and women generally recognized as saints: Bernard of Clairvaux, Dominic, Louis of France, Thomas Aquinas, Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena, John of Capistrano, even probably Francis of Assisi.¹³ From Urban II in 1095 to Innocent XI in 1684, pope after pope wrote, or authorized the dispatch of, letters in which the faithful were summoned to crusade, offered spiritual privileges if they responded and threatened with divine judgment if they did not, and the papacy recognized a new type of religious institute in approving of and privileging the military orders. At least six general councils of the church legislated for crusades and two of them, the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and the Second Council of Lyons (1274), published the constitutions Ad liberandam and Pro zelo fidei, which were among the movement’s defining documents.¹⁴ The early Protestants’ rejection of the papal magisterium and salvation through works did not prevent them preaching the right of Christians to take up arms in their own defense against the Turks, and it has been pointed out that Martin Luther’s approach "resembled the Catholic crusade in a number of key respects, notably