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    Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End
    Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End
    Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End
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    Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End

    By Anthony Hunt

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    When Gary Snyder’s long poem Mountains and Rivers Without End was published in 1996, it was hailed as a masterpiece of American poetry. Anthony Hunt offers a detailed historical and explicative analysis of this complex work using, among his many sources, Snyder’s personal papers, letters, and interviews. Hunt traces the work’s origins, as well as some of the sources of its themes and structure, including Nō drama; East Asian landscape painting; the rhythms of storytelling, chant, and song; Jungian archetypal psychology; world mythology; Buddhist philosophy and ritual; Native American traditions; and planetary geology, hydrology, and ecology. His analysis addresses the poem not merely by its content, but through the structure of individual lines and the arrangement of the parts, examining the personal and cultural influences on Snyder’s work. Hunt’s benchmark study will be rewarding reading for anyone who enjoys the contemplation of Snyder’s artistry and ideas and, more generally, for those who are intrigued by the cultural and intellectual workings of artistic composition.
     
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherUniversity of Nevada Press
    Release dateDec 20, 2016
    ISBN9780874174762
    Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End

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      Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End - Anthony Hunt

      1

      Finding the Paths

      Bearings

      I’m sixty-eight he said,

      "I first bucked hay when I was seventeen.

      I thought, that day I started,

      I sure would hate to do this all my life.

      And dammit, that’s just what

      I’ve gone and done."

      from Hay for the Horses (Riprap, & Cold Mountain Poems 13)

      At what point in time does one recognize what one has gone and done? Where, among the events of the past, did diverse flows of energy come together to culminate in the making of a significant lifetime? Remarkably, in the case of Gary Snyder, much of what he has come to represent as an elder of the tribe has always been there.

      Raised on a dairy farm just outside of Seattle on the edge of an old clear-cut forest, as a child Snyder played among huge twelve-by-twelve-foot stumps of ancient trees that struck him as ghosts from the past, some that even spoke to him. Remembering his childhood, Snyder recalls several trees close to his home that he had climbed, "especially one Western Red Cedar (xelpai’its in Snohomish) that I fancied became my advisor" (Practice 117). Rocks, trees, sheep, rabbits, coyotes, eagles, bear, deer, and ravens all speak to him, for him, and through him. Even grass-seed-buddhas and rain drops—tiny people gliding slanting down (MRWE 81)—are alive in his poems. Snyder’s knowledge of the land, especially that of his immediate community and the bioregion encircling it, extends to an interaction over time of its geology, plants, animals, and humans. In this vast planetary web of being, as he continually reminds us, humans share in the irrevocable fact of edibility. Linked by the food chain, all beings provide nourishment, literal and otherwise, for other beings. Conversely, the richness and diversity of the nonhuman world only deepens Snyder’s felt responsibility for the human one.

      Work has always been a primary force in the poet’s life, as it was in the life of his father who split shakes to make money in the depression years, or in the lives of other relatives and friends, male and female, dead or alive, who have known what it was and is to work to live. His poems often celebrate the intensity of work; the words capture the pure musical rhythm, the riprap of those who labor with their hands. Male voices, especially in earlier poems, speak in various ethnic accents: seamen, loggers, trail crewmen, farmers, truck drivers, cowboys. Hard-drinking, earthy, frequently carnal, they live close to the edge, their Dionysian wisdom that of people who have managed to persevere, even celebrate, in difficult times.

      Notwithstanding the elbow grease and eroticism, Snyder is, and always has been, a scholar-poet. Wherever he goes he takes notes as he studies the animals, the trees, the flowers, the herbs. He contemplates the religious, the philosophical, the cultural, and the historical. He knows both the Paleolithic and the present; he is as informed about the old ways—the traditions, artifacts, and tools of both ancient and contemporary inhabitory peoples—as he is about modern technology and culture. His mother, he says, gave him his love for literature and poetry. She enrolled him at Lincoln High in Portland and later urged him to attend Reed College where his scholarship was energized by the tutelage of teachers like Lloyd Reynolds, Stanley Moore, and David French. Reed also provided intellectual classmates like Philip Whalen, his lifelong friend, and the challenge, in 1951, of writing a senior thesis, He Who Hunted Birds in His Father’s Village, that, even today, is comparable to some doctoral dissertations. Yet Snyder’s is a Zen intellect: hours spent in gathering knowledge, complemented by physical labor and meditations on the tangibility of emptiness. The intellect is never a goal in itself.

      Never claiming to speak for Native Americans, Snyder surely identifies with many of their traditions. Long before most non–Native Americans knew of the Hump-backed Flute Player, Snyder had incorporated Kokop’ele into his poetry and thought. Turtle Island—the old/new name for the continent, based on many creation myths of the people who have been living here for millennia, and reapplied by some of them to ‘North America’ in recent years—became the title of Snyder’s Pulitzer Prize-winning book of poems. The phrase clearly took hold of an American consciousness replete with Anglos, Black people, Chicanos, and others beached up on these shores who hardly knew such names had been there all the time (Turtle Island [xi]). Like the old-growth trees that stood on the edge of his father’s farm, the Native American traditions, rituals, and factual history are ghostlike presences lurking in the corners of the modern mind waiting to reassert themselves.

      Similarly, Snyder has meditated at length on the mythical and/or prehistorical artifacts of civilization’s past. For him, these are the palpable ghosts of the Paleolithic: the ageless mythical time of oral narratives; the magico-mystical power of the healing shaman; the expressive link between human and animal found in the language of 40,000-year-old cave paintings; the sophistication of prehistory’s technology; and a profound encounter with what some have called a Great Goddess.

      Snyder’s poetry is filled with the feminine: the Magna Mater, Lady of the Animals, the Bear Mother, Mother Bos, Kuan-yin, Māyā, Pārvāti, Kali, Tārā, Yamamba, the Moon, Gaia, Mother Earth, and so many others. Although he reverently traces his matriarchal lineage to a modest Kansas gravestone where he plants a kiss on a rock inscribed with the name of Harriet Callicotte, his maternal great-grandmother (Halper 169–73), Snyder often depicts the feminine in a conflicted manner. He credits his mother with being an advanced thinker for her time and for inspiring him to be a poet; but in interviews and correspondence he sometimes refers to her as domineering and aggressive, even manic-depressive. Like Actaeon observing Artemis bathing at her virgin spring in the forest, deep in Snyder’s mythological consciousness there is an ongoing—and enigmatic—encounter with Swan Maiden, a mysterious naked beauty who bathes in a mountain lake or by a river. Her presence was the impulse for his Reed thesis, a work that he acknowledged in 1978 as "really about lost love" (He Who Hunted xi). She may correspond to Alison, his first wife, whom he portrays as a literal bathing forest maiden in For the Boy Who Was Dodger Point Lookout Fifteen Years Ago, yet the mysterious aspects of this mythical woman are more strongly reminiscent of Robin Collins, a classmate at Reed, whose haunting image emerges in correspondence, journal notations, or in early poems (Four Poems for Robin). The ecstasy of the erotic, whether sacred or secular, is frequent in Snyder’s life and writing, and the oppositional energy of the feminine is easily traced in the record of his marriages and liaisons. Joanne Kyger’s published journal depicts their four-year marriage as one of both passionate attachment and a clash of egos. Named in an early version of The Elwha River, Kyger, like so much else in that early poem, becomes a lost thing for Snyder. Masa Uehara, his third wife, becomes an emblem of woman as sexual partner, wife, and mother in the poems of Regarding Wave. Carole Koda’s presence is explicit among the pages of Mountains and Rivers Without End; she is named in Cross-Legg’d and Macaques in the Sky; she is the other soul or paddle or wing in the double kayak of Afloat. She is the lover and wife mentioned in Finding the Space in the Heart. Literal associations aside, Snyder’s creativity unquestionably drinks at the well of feminine inspiration. The poetic power of The Goddess, whoever she is, whether fearsome or beatific, derives in part from her ability to walk the line between mythology and actuality; she is the perennial dancing partner for the ascetic god-hero of the mountain. Encounters with her lead to enlightenment.

      Perhaps Asia entered the web of Snyder’s imagination merely because as a spatially oriented person he lived on one side of the Pacific and dreamed of the other, but it is more likely that it had to do with wilderness and mountaineering. Snyder himself has pointed to a significant moment when, barely a teenager, he saw an exhibit of Chinese landscape paintings in the Seattle Art Museum and marveled at the ephemeral reality they depicted. Summer times during high school years were spent exploring the high country of the Cascades. Later, as he sat, like Han Shan, in his lookout’s post on the top of Sourdough Mountain, he consciously emulated the life of an Asian mountain ascetic. Throughout these years his technical skill and scholarship continued: at Reed, Chinese calligraphy and poetry with Lloyd Reynolds and Charles Leong; at Berkeley, the study of Oriental languages, and lessons in sumi painting under Chiura Obata. Still, it was the mountains that provided him with the call to the journey he would undertake. In a journal entry, written several years (1954) after the event, Snyder recorded a moment of direct insight into nature’s ways. He was twenty years old at the time:

      Walking out of the Olympics in 1950: the sudden realization of order & chaos, chaos in nature: the paths and gardens are not trimmed and ordered. Everything falls everwhich way, the birds swoop all directions, the deer go crashing off through the brush, & the glaciers fall down & smash the trees: but NOTHING IS OUT OF PLACE. That is why they say: The Tao is like (=)? Nature. Here is a koan for you. order & chaos. . . .

      He goes on to ask himself:

      why?? did I at so early an age become a nature-mystic? it wa’nt anything I read?? what did it. This puzzles me. . . . (Robertson, Real Matter 224)

      A similar experience apparently took place in mid-1951. According to Allen Ginsberg, while Snyder was sitting on the banks of the Willamette River shortly after turning in the final version of his Reed thesis, he experienced a satori in which he was overwhelmed by a consciousness that the entire universe is alive (Ginsberg 150; Ginsberg incorrectly states the year as 1948).¹ Given the gift of hindsight, these intimations of interconnectedness helped push Snyder in the direction of Zen Buddhism and the formulation of Mountains and Rivers Without End. By the age of twenty-four, without knowing exactly why or how it had come about, the poet felt himself to be a nature-mystic. A mere two years later, in the spring of 1956, he finished the manuscript for Myths & Texts, began work on his new long poem, and embarked for Japan to take up formal Zen studies.

      As a finished artifact, Mountains and Rivers Without End was to become a veritable river of knowledge, a flowing landscape packed with information on ecology, geology, travel, painting theory, Buddhist philosophy, and food chains, to name a few of its more obvious topics. In the years between the setting forth and the accomplishment, from the evidence of letters, interviews, and public statements, we know that Snyder often thought, mistakenly so, that he was only a few months away from completing his masterpiece. Clearly, the only certitude among these multiple interweavings is that Gary Snyder, as a young man in his mid-twenties, never envisioned spending forty years of his life on the making of Mountains and Rivers Without End, but dammit, that’s sure what he went and did.

      Opening the Poem

      On October 22, 1965, Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Allen Ginsberg ritually hiked around Mount Tamalpais, just north of San Francisco, in accord with an ancient Hindu-Buddhist practice known as pradakshina. The event is commemorated in The Circumambulation of Mt. Tamalpais, a prominent section of Snyder’s Mountains and Rivers Without End. In a note to the poem, as first published in journal form, Snyder tells us that pradakshina is performed as a way of opening the mountain:

      You circumambulate (always clockwise) a stupa, a tree, a person you wish to show respect to, or a mountain. On Mt. Hiei some of the practicers of the Tendai sect go around the mountain every day for 100 or 1000 days, as a magical and meditative exercise. (Coyote’s Journal 5-6: 5)²

      Similarly, circumambulation is a fitting term to describe each reader’s exploration of Mountains and Rivers Without End. To open the resonant energies of Snyder’s poem, one must integrate an attentive step-by-step passage along the spiraling pathways of its verbal panorama with an inspired consciousness of what lies just off its virtual trails. Still, as a mountain has a way of just being mountain regardless of how many times one walks around it, a complete grasp of Snyder’s long poem will always exist beyond any single description, analysis, interpretation, or evaluation of it. Despite the fixity of words and images on the page, Snyder’s virtual streams and mountains, like their counterparts in our real world, will never stay the same. Each attentive walking of this poetic landscape produces new interconnections, new inspirations, new insights. Simultaneously enticing and resistant, Mountains and Rivers Without End ultimately has a way of just being poem, always simply there, awaiting yet another critical circumambulation. Forty years in the making, Snyder’s poem, a landmark work engendered by a life lived with commitment and significance, plainly merits respect.

      Snyder once expressed a wish that his poem would be self-informing (Faas 132), but it is obvious that the journey through Mountains and Rivers Without End is not a trip to be taken lightly. The poet’s unusual blend of materials—mythological references, East Asian landscape painting, Buddhist philosophy and ritual, the Japanese Nō theater, Native American customs and folkways, planetary hydrology and geology, to name just a few—and his unique way of interweaving that content into a whole comprising distinct parts and sections make his poem challenging even for well-educated readers. Yet it is equally clear that Snyder is a poet who wishes to be read by a wider audience than the allusiveness of Mountains and Rivers Without End might imply. His reputation first took shape in the so-called beatnik era, a time of social activism and populist revolutionary expectations; forty years later, he continues to espouse those concerns, although his focus has shifted toward psychological and spiritual change as he talks of Finding the Space in the Heart. Writers like Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac who also emerged out of that narrowly defined beatnik milieu may have sought and received more public attention, but Snyder’s Mountains and Rivers Without End positions him to become the still point of the turning circle of his times. Like T. S. Eliot’s Four Quartets, Mountains and Rivers Without End is a long meditative poem involving personal and cultural survival, yet Snyder’s major frame of reference is Buddhist whereas Eliot’s is Christian, and Snyder’s concerns are with the planet and all beings whereas Eliot notably fixes on the human species and Western traditions. As a sage for our times, with a reputation and expertise that extends well beyond the confines of academia, clearly Snyder wishes to have his poem read by a broad spectrum of people: among others, readers caught up in cultural studies, anthropology, religion, comparative poetry, and environmental studies.

      In the process of providing an account of the poem’s historical development and readings for individual sections, I hope to demonstrate conclusively that Mountains and Rivers Without End is no mere random gathering of thirty-nine individual poems, but a carefully constructed interweaving of sound, image, and sense, the result of both intuition and conscious intention. The formal constraints of both the East Asian landscape scroll and the Japanese Nō play have profoundly affected the arrangement of sections within the four parts of the larger poem, the linear order of the thirty-nine sections, and even the composition of lines within individual sections. Additionally, the underlying story of Mountains and Rivers Without End is associated with a particular kind of Nō play wherein a wandering monk or lay pilgrim encounters a spirit, first in the guise of an ordinary person (a woodchopper, a woman by a well, etc.) and later as an awesome, whether beatific or horrific, spirit of the place. That encounter normally becomes enlightening in the Buddhist sense of the word. Snyder’s long poem contains a series of such meetings between the narrator (typically Snyder as a character in his own poem) and, more often than not, a feminine Other; these confrontations grow in intensity as the poem moves linearly through its sections, culminating in the climactic section, The Mountain Spirit. Significantly, Snyder’s attention to this well-known archetypal pattern predates his acquaintance with the Nō play in Japan. As an undergraduate student at Reed he read widely in the scholarly work of writers such as C. G. Jung, Erich Neumann, Joseph Campbell, and the poet Robert Graves. In Mountains and Rivers Without End, this Meeting with The Goddess is easy to misread as a case of gendered duality, but, as always in this poem, Snyder’s focus is on the enlightenment that results from the eternal dance of opposed forces and not on one, the other, or even both in their particularity.

      As a teacher I have struggled to bring meaningful texts into close proximity with truly curious minds in order to allow those minds to see that there is more to life than the evening news, video games, and fast-food restaurants, although those too are part of the web of existence. I do not see my book as a Reader’s Guide to Mountains and Rivers Without End, a key to allusive words, phrases, or meanings; nor do I have any desire to rob readers of the illuminating joy of personal discovery. In a perfect world readers would indeed discover meanings by themselves, and teachers, like myself, would be unnecessary. Nevertheless, as I have spent over twenty years in researching, thinking, and writing about Snyder’s poem, I would like to share with my readers what I hope is a graceful reading of an important, yet difficult poem. In doing so I hope readers will come away with a greater appreciation of Snyder’s wisdom and poetic artistry as they willingly succumb to the art of reading poetry, especially long poems, especially Mountains and Rivers Without End. A thousand times I have asked myself: Why have I written this book? My answer always turns upon Susan Sontag’s words in Against Interpretation (1964), which I first read as a graduate student just setting forth to engage with his profession:

      The aim of all commentary on art now should be to make works of art—and, by analogy, our own experience—more, rather than less, real to us. The function of criticism should be to show how it is what it is, even that it is what it is, rather than to show what it means. . . . In place of a hermeneutics we need an erotics of art. (14)

      Walking the winding paths—some virtual and some real—of Mountains and Rivers Without End, sitting quietly by rivers or standing on peaks, immersed in archival artifacts or losing myself in the empty spaces of being, my adventure with this poem has been both prolonged and deeply satisfying, one that has profoundly affected my own intellectual and experiential development, not to mention the lives of those close to me. There was no small measure of personal enlightenment on the path, a bounty that I trust awaits all those who make the trip with commitment and a good heart.

      2

      Composing the Space

      Genesis and Development of the Poem

      I started working on Mountains and Rivers almost as soon as Myths & Texts was finished. Then in 1965 I decided that six sections from the poem stood strongly enough by themselves that we would publish them. With the publication of Six Sections . . . Plus One, I decided not to publish any more selections in books [except for The California Water Plan in the Fudo Trilogy], only in magazines, until I finished the whole thing, and I’m still working on it. I have no idea when it will appear.

      Mountains and Rivers is a title for a number of Chinese landscape paintings. One is by the Yüan Dynasty painter, Hsü-Pen, whose work inspired me. I’m writing about the complementarity of mountains and rivers, but that’s really the planet, taking that on.

      (McNeil 23, bracketed material in original)

      Over the intervening years—according to Snyder at a rate of once a year—he quietly published sections of his long poem in various books and literary magazines. Much like the paths in a Chinese landscape painting that take several unforeseen turns, the poem’s present form was arrived at by an oblique route. As a model on which to build a poem, Hsü Pen’s painting was ultimately superseded by the work of another landscape painter. Snyder’s identification of sections was sporadic. In literary magazines, he sometimes specified a Mountains and Rivers poem by appending a tag line, most often from Mts. & Rivers, as a header or footer to the poem. A section was sometimes identified as work in progress before he read it to an audience, as taped recordings reveal. His correspondence occasionally identifies a poem as a section even though it was published without the identifying tag line. Conversely, some sections—like The California Water Plan mentioned by McNeil—were published with the tag line yet were not incorporated into the final version. The making of Mountains and Rivers Without End was a dynamic process of continual give-and-take, vision-and-revision, inspiration and perspiration. For whatever reasons—the call of personal obligations, a commitment to other projects, patient waiting for moments of poetic inspiration—there were lean years in which few sections, or none, were published. Equally, there were years of active production as groups of poems appeared. Normally these bursts of poetic energy clustered around landscapes Snyder had newly visited or abstract ideas he had clarified. The sections of Snyder’s poem developed both persistently and randomly. If, at times, the engendering of Mountains and Rivers was a reflection of Snyder’s conscious choices, at other times it followed mysterious pathways into a Zen-inspired silken void where clarity of vision and no-mind intermingle.

      The fall of 1955 was a grand moment for the poet Gary Snyder. Not only did he complete the manuscript that would eventually be published as Myths & Texts, he also had an insight into composing a new kind of lyric poetry that would become Riprap. Additionally, as a major participant in the Six Gallery reading (October 7, 1955) that launched the Beat movement, his public recognition was on the rise. And, silently, he began work on Mountains and Rivers Without End. Yet shortly afterward, in May of 1956, just as the San Francisco movement began to flourish, Snyder seemingly turned his back on it by leaving the United States for Japan on his first attempt to undergo rigorous training as a Zen Buddhist. Nevertheless, as voluminous correspondence among the Gary Snyder Papers at the University of California at Davis reveals, he was an energetic letter writer, never really out of touch with the poetry scene in the United States. He continued to keep detailed journals, write poems, and pursue—with the help of friends and associates like Philip Whalen, Cid Corman, and Donald Allen—the publication of his own poetry.

      On February 8, 1957, approximately seven months after Snyder had arrived in Japan, Philip Whalen wrote to him: Everybody asks me, How is Gary? I say you’re happy & let it go at that. I hope your makemono poem is going ahead, flinging sparks (GSP B89:F73). Snyder responded a week later:

      The makemono poem awaits some further research at the moment into geomorphology, Parkman’s Oregon Trail, Hsuan Tsung’s travels, & the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Annual Reports on Trees, Grasses, & Water. Also must look at more paintings. . . . Am playing with idea of sort of joruri poetry-reading, i.e., accompaniment of occasional clacker, drum, pipe, & shamisen music effect. Like at kabuki & nō. maybe long poem I do with that in mind. ho ho. Gary. (16 Feb. 1957. Reed–PWP)

      The Japanese word makemono refers to a handscroll painted in a horizontal format. Kakemono scrolls hang vertically and are normally viewed at a single glance. In contrast, the horizontal handscroll is normally perceived a section at a time. Viewers observe the scenes sequentially: noting the foreground and background, stopping to check the smallest of details, finding paths in the wilderness, following tiny travelers who wind their way along the trails. There are stopping places: a temple in the woods, a log to sit on, a small group of village huts. Boats float silently on foregrounded lakes. Mysterious rivers fall over the rocks, flow among trees. Mountain peaks vanish into the haze of distant clouds, which in turn fade into the white unpainted space. With each turning of the scroll there are new scenes to take in. Mirrored in the virtual world of these horizontal scrolls are Snyder’s own early wanderings as hitchhiker, seaman, trail crewman, Zen meditator, and world traveler. His affinity for the makemono scroll seems a logical extension of the Beat generation desire to live life on the road.

      Joruri, a form of Japanese puppet theater that would have been impossible without the Nō before it, depends on a chanter delivering lines for voiceless puppets (Keene 58). Snyder evidently envisioned his poem from the outset as a performance involving public reading, ritualized chanting, and literal poetic song. Fascinated by the Japanese Nō and Kabuki plays he was seeing in Kyoto, in March he wrote again to Whalen recalling William Butler Yeats’s use of the Nō and describing recitation techniques that involved half-singing and half-chanting, accompanied by shamisen twangers, wooden clackers, drums, and flute music. Undoubtedly, Snyder’s focus was not on Yeats’s drama but on Mountains and Rivers. He told Whalen that he could imagine a very jolly creative sort of modern poetry-modern-dance-music shot built around the reading of one long dramatic-type poem with musicians and possibly a dancer (8 Mar. 1957. Reed–PWP).

      The Snyder-Whalen correspondence of early 1957 about Snyder’s "makemono poem is the earliest documented indication that the poet had distinct ideas about the form his long poem might take. Given the success of the dramatic poetry readings begun by the Beats, Snyder’s desire to utilize chanting and musical instruments is not surprising. Beat poetry often relied on jazz rhythms, and the term beat was as likely to refer to a musical measure as it was to mean sad or beaten down. When Allen Ginsberg read the infamous inaugural poem of the Beat movement, Howl," surely the title of his poem was a reminder that it was meant to be heard with the ear as well as felt in the gut. The Beats, whether in San Francisco or New York, created a new consciousness for public poetry readings from coast to coast. As Snyder pointed out to Bill Moyers years later,

      from the night when Allen and I and others first read our works at the Sixth [sic] Gallery in October of 1955, there has not been a night without a poetry reading in the Bay Area. It started just like that, and then it moved out across the whole country, to coffeehouses and cultural centers and then into the academy. (Language of Life 357)

      Snyder’s first encounter with Japan and the First Zen Institute of America, which had sponsored his trip, was not, however, what he had hoped. By late August of 1957 he had left Kyoto behind, signing on as a crewman on the Sappa Creek, a T-2 tanker that would take him from the ports of Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea through Suez to Istanbul and various Mediterranean destinations before backtracking across the South Pacific via Samoa to finally leave him once more in California by mid-April of 1958. Journal entries and letters from these travels attest to Snyder’s continuing work on what would become Mountains and Rivers Without End. Throughout these months, Snyder became one of those tiny people traversing a seemingly endless landscape of fact and imagination as it coiled about him.

      While Snyder was voyaging, Jack Kerouac’s The Dharma Bums (1958) was published. In this novel, a well-known roman à clef, Japhy Ryder (Snyder) reveals his plans to Ray Smith (Kerouac) for using the horizontal landscape scroll as a structure for his new long poem:

      Know what I’m gonna do? I’ll do a new long poem called Rivers and Mountains Without End and just write it on and on on a scroll and unfold on and on with new surprises and always what went before forgotten, see, like a river, or like one of them real long Chinese silk paintings that show two little men hiking in an endless landscape of gnarled old trees and mountains so high they merge with the fog in the upper silk void. I’ll spend three thousand years writing it, it’ll be packed full of information on soil conservation, the Tennessee Valley Authority, astronomy, geology, Hsuan Tsung’s travels, Chinese painting theory, reforestation, Oceanic ecology and food chains. (157)

      The actual events behind Kerouac’s fictional paragraph took place as he and Snyder hiked together on Mount Tamalpais on May 1–2, 1956, just before Snyder left for Japan on the Arita Maru (Robertson, Real Matter 220–21). Since no Mountains and Rivers poem about the Tennessee Valley Authority has surfaced, we are left to wonder which words belong to Gary Snyder and which to Jack Kerouac’s imaginative recollection. Snyder himself said, in a late 1959 letter to Joanne Kyger, that the Dharma Bums is indeed not about me. All out of context (GSP B104:F12). Yet, although no factual paper trail in 1956 exists, it is evident from the general correspondence of Snyder’s actual long poem with Kerouac’s fiction that Snyder had given a good deal of thought to the details of his poem—both in form and content—before he left for Japan.

      Returning to the Bay Area by late April of 1958, Snyder stayed briefly with his father in Corte Madera, then moved into the cabin known as Marin-an on the slopes of Mount Tamalpais. The name given to the cabin is a good indication of Snyder’s multilingual playfulness. In Chinese, ma is the equivalent of horse and rin means grove, but the suffix an is a Japanese designation for a hermitage. The cabin was thus named both for its physical location in Marin County, California, and its purpose as a horse-grove hermitage, a Zen-like retreat named for the horses that did indeed graze on the hillsides. During the next few months there were parties and poetry readings in the Bay Area, and there were hiking excursions. In mid-June he met Joanne Kyger, who would eventually follow him to Japan to become his second wife. There was a short trip to visit Philip Whalen in Oregon. But there wasn’t much in the way of new writing. He wrote to Whalen in the fall that he hadn’t written poems for several months ([19?] Oct. 1958. Reed–PWP). By January 1959, nine months after he had gotten off the Sappa Creek in San Pedro, he was on board ship for a second time around with formal Zen study in Kyoto.

      Mountains and Rivers was never far from his thought. Donald Allen’s influential anthology The New American Poetry (1960) includes no Mountains and Rivers poems among an otherwise representative selection of Snyder’s poetry, but in a section of the anthology titled Statements on Poetics Snyder updates his ongoing project:

      Since 1956 I’ve been working on a long poem I’m calling Mountains and Rivers without End after a Chinese sidewise scroll painting. It threatens to be like its title. Travel, the sense of journey in space that modern people have lost (it takes as long to go from Cedar Grove to the Bighorn Plateau in the Sierras as it does to cross America by train), and rise and fall of rock and water. The naked burning rocks of Oman after thirty days at sea. History and its vengeful ghosts. The dramatic structure follows a certain type of Nō play. [1959] (421, bracketed date in original.)¹

      Snyder’s poem is beginning to have a life of its own as it threatens to be without end. Once more he emphasizes the idea of time spent moving through space. If the earlier Japhy Ryder mentions hiking in an endless landscape, Gary Snyder speaks here of specific Sierra Nevada trails that he had walked and factual travel that he had undertaken along the waterways of the Middle East on the Sappa Creek. Like the earlier Myths & Texts, an archetypal journey merges with a personal path. In rock and water we hear an echo of the phrase mountains and rivers. Moreover, the dynamism of this landscape that changes over geological time is mirrored by a historical journey of human beings out of a distant past and into an unknown future, a journey made alongside vengeful ghosts who refuse to disappear. Snyder’s allusion to a certain type of Nō play calls forth the paradigm in which travelers encounter ghosts in settings that appear as magical as they are ordinary. Both the East Asian horizontal landscape scroll and the Nō play involve journeying, and both hold the promise of spiritual revelation and illumination. If there is to be enlightenment in these encounters, Snyder probably has in mind ghostly figures from the relatively recent political history of Native America or, further back, representative spirits of the Paleolithic way of life that the modern world has forgotten. At one stroke Snyder merges several topics that will bind Mountains and Rivers Without End into a harmonious sequence.

      A letter written to Allen Ginsberg in January 1959 is similar in tone and content to the statement he gave Donald Allen:

      21.1.59

      I had a big dream last night exposing & revealing the necessary plan of Mountains & Rivers Without End which has been growing but without design; it is going to be the first complete poem of SPACE and questions of time in space; sense of distance, heart of journey, 6 hours to fly to New York or walk from a creek to a certain lake; things like Aden or Oman seen from afar; the falling-back-in-time of a striped lateen sail on the Red sea, what happened in certain towns, the kinds of cheap wines, gradual lowering of the north star as you travel south . . . Gary. (Origin 2nd ser. 2: 63)

      The thematic motifs of time in space, sense of distance, heart of journey are paralleled in the Allen anthology quote, and Snyder’s complaint that his long poem had been growing but without design was repeated to other correspondents and interviewers at later dates. If indeed the Muse had revealed the necessary plan for the poem, hindsight reveals that it would undergo many changes even as the poet held onto a steady vision of its totality. What is new here is Snyder’s emphasis on SPACE in-and-for-itself and the notion that dream has a role to play in the making of Mountains and Rivers Without End.

      The truth is that by mid-1959, with the poet once more engaged in full-time Zen study in Kyoto, the public had not actually seen much of Snyder’s poetry on the printed page, certainly not in book form. There was a great deal of general hoopla about the Beats, and Snyder’s name was usually included in articles about the movement. However, neither Myths & Texts nor Riprap, Snyder’s gathering of short poems written between 1953 and 1958, had yet been published. The Cold Mountain translations of Han Shan’s poetry appeared in Evergreen Review in mid-1958, the timing of which probably reinforced Kerouac’s image of Japhy Ryder-Snyder as a mountain ascetic. It is not surprising to hear Snyder complaining about his poetry, as he does to Whalen in a letter from Kyoto on August 14, 1959:

      I have created heaps of fragmental poems lately, but can see no order or development in them as a whole, & have no specific sense of line at the moment. Rather frustrating. All of the Mountains & Rivers Without End material awaits a few inspired weeks of work & it will be complete. But I’ve been waiting almost 2 years to get that finished. I think part of it is that zazen, at this stage for me at least, de-verbalizes me. I hate to talk to people, I don’t like to read, & it’s difficult to write letters. (Reed–PWP)

      Now studying Zen intensively under the guidance of Oda Sessō at Daitoku-ji, a Rinzai temple in Kyoto, Snyder seemed unable to find the time he needed to meditate on his long poem. Despite his naive optimistic note that a few inspired weeks of work & it will be complete, his need to stay focused on Zen and its practice of sitting meditation (zazen) and his desire to find some development or order or specific sense of line for his poem kept him from putting the all of it together. Surely his conception of the whole poem at that time must have been markedly different from what the poem has turned out to be, but whatever design he had in his mind, it is clear that he did have some plan or there would have been no all.

      In contemplating a horizontal landscape painting, one wonders if an artist knows from the first turn of the scroll how the work will develop and where it will all end. It is, of course, possible to begin in a spatial middle and paint in panels as one conceives of them. Yet how much comprehension of the whole is necessary to allow an artist to fill in (or leave blank) the spaces? In good Zen fashion, once begun in earnest there is no stopping; the ink continues to flow and the blank spaces call forth the painting. Time and progress become relative. A year may be a moment; an achievement, however small or large, may be significant or insignificant.

      By waiting almost 2 years to create whatever sections he had in hand, Snyder may have paused in his composition, but he continued to believe he had something new and different to say. Still mourning his slow progress, he wrote to Joanne Kyger in December of 1959: I have rumblings of a vast new poetry inside me but it is slow borning—like I’m waiting almost 2 years now (29 Dec. 1959. GSP B104:F12). His tension is palpable; the poem won’t go away, but it won’t come together either.

      In January, as Kyger was making preparations to sail for Japan to join him, Snyder wrote to Whalen: "Am working on the Sophia section of Mountains & Rivers by fits and starts. Another section in lagging progress is called Night Highway Ninety-Nine. But all in all I must say this past year has been signally unproductive" (13 Jan. 1960. Reed–PWP). Complain though he might, there is dramatic evidence here of the impressive scope of Mountains and Rivers Without End. Night Highway 99, a journey poem that readily suggests the little travelers of the Chinese landscape scroll, eventually became an integral section of the final poem, but the Sophia section of the poem has failed to materialize. During his visit to Istanbul a little over two years earlier, Snyder had been immensely impressed by the huge dome of the Hagia Sophia, sometimes referred to as Santa Sophia. He wrote to Allen Ginsberg that he went walking alone on Christmas to Blue Mosque & SANTA SOPHIA where I was completely translated & rendered new & different by INSIDE EMPTINESS OF HOLY DOME (22 Apr. [1958]. Letter to Allen Ginsberg, Unspeakable Visions of the Individual 4:114). Several years later, writing to Whalen, Snyder compares the Santa Sophia dome to the enormous wooden structure covering the statue of the Buddha at Todaiji, acknowledging that although the Buddhist building is a magnificent structure, somehow the Santa Sophia is a more ‘Buddhist’ temple. More presence of the Void. Maybe because of that great empty dome. The empty dome or the big bronze Buddha. Well (9 Jan. 1961. Reed–PWP). Never published, the existence of even a partial Sophia section reveals the importance of the presence of the Void to Snyder’s evolving conception of his poem. Metaphorically his terms SPACE and EMPTINESS take on the weight of the Mahāyāna Buddhist metaphysical concept of shūnyatā:

      Shūnyatā [Sanskrit] . . . lit. emptiness, void; central notion of Buddhism. . . . in the Mahāyāna . . . all things are regarded as without essence, i.e., empty of self-nature. . . . All dharmas are fundamentally nothing more than mere appearances. They do not exist outside of emptiness. . . . It does not mean that things do not exist but rather that they are nothing besides appearances. (Shūnyatā Shambhala Dictionary)

      The Heart Sūtra, a centerpiece of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought, contains the most succinct statement of the emptiness doctrine, so significant that it is chanted daily by practitioners of Zen: form is no other than emptiness; emptiness is no other than form.² Since, at the time of his comments to Whalen and Ginsberg, Snyder had not yet discovered the empty silvery flats of the Black Rock Desert, it is certain that he had not yet conceived of Finding the Space in the Heart as the final section of his long poem. There is little doubt, however, that he imagined emptiness to be at the heart of his long poem.

      On the 23rd of February, 1960, three days after Joanne Kyger disembarked in Japan, she and Gary Snyder were married in the American Consulate in Kobe. By April, as we know from the 20. iv.60 date printed at the end of Bubbs Creek Haircut, Snyder had completed another section. He was delighted with his accomplishment and wrote to Whalen to tell him so: I have written a new poem which is possibly the best thing I’ve done in 2 or 3 or more years; which I am calling ‘Bubbs Creek Haircut’ & with another rewriting or so, will send you a copy to see (3 May 1960. Reed–PWP). True to his word, a month later he sent a draft of Bubbs Creek Haircut for Whalen to criticize, calling it "an installment of Rivers & Mountains sans souci and saying that he wrote it all down in one draft in 20 minutes by hand—the Muse really had me by the balls there (13 June 1960. Reed–PWP). Continuing to assess his relationship with the Muse, by September of that year Snyder’s comments show that the actual process of composition was much on his mind: This long poem grows on me, the conception of it, only it’s too intellectual still, apparently I work by getting a sort of overall intellectual structure & then sort of forgetting it a long time & then beginning to fairly spontaneously write into it (23 Sept. 1960. Reed–PWP). Snyder’s desire for spontaneity is in keeping with the general predilection for the rhythms of impromptu jazz, the spontaneous prose that Kerouac was writing, or the idea of projective verse" as put forth by Charles Olson, to name only a few examples.³ In addition, Snyder’s ability to write fairly spontaneously after long periods of nonattention may be related to the very practice of zazen that he felt, at first, was deverbalizing him. Then again, the delights and tensions of his marriage to Kyger, a strong personality and poet in her own right, may have helped the flow of his poetic activity in 1960. By January of 1961 he tells Whalen that he is happy because I’ve done a lot of work the past 2 weeks, typed notes I’ve had laying around 2 or 3 years, gotten a lot of notions cleared up about some poems, & wrote some new other ones, & have plans for some steady work projects this month on–making the time to do it (9 Jan. 1961.

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