Chinese Alchemy: Taoism, the Power of Gold, and the Quest for Immortality

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ORIGINS

There is little in Chinese alchemy that cannot be associated with Taoism and although the exact origins of that alchemy may still be in dispute in the light of present incomplete evidence, it is not questioned that it grew and was nourished in the soil of popular and religious Taoism. It is also recognized that there are two distinct branches of Taoism: the classical Tao Chia, the mystical, metaphysical aspect, stemming from Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, and the popular, religious, magical, alchemical side, the Tao Chiao, which arose traditionally with the Yellow Emperor and his Three Immortal Ladies, or Maids, who taught him magic, mysticism and love. Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu probably represented a movement against these earlier animistic-magico practices and founded the Tao Chia as a protest, or rather a correction, at a time when such practices had lost their original meaning and become loaded with superstition.

Yet another viewpoint is that classical Taoism was original but was too austere and rarefied for the general populace and later, meeting the shamanism which flourished in the tribes of the regions north and west of China proper, absorbed shamanistic-animistic lore and degenerated into the religious, ritualistic, magical and alchemical branch, the Tao Chiao, which fulfilled the day-to-day needs of the people and which still exists in modern times as a popular religion. Thus, from being abstract philosophy, it became a concrete religion with a ceremonial Church, having a priesthood, liturgy and theology, a Pope, and a Trinity known as the Three Pure Ones. From the original non-theistic mysticism it became not only theistic but polytheistic, adopting the pantheon of popular Buddhism.

While the origins and dates of Chinese alchemy are still being researched and debated (there are literally hundreds of Taoists texts as yet untranslated) it is known for certain that it flourished well before 144 BC, for at that date the Emperor issued an edict which ordered public execution for anyone found making counterfeit gold. The making of counterfeit cash was also proscribed. However, in the year 60 BC the then Emperor appointed a well-known scholar, Liu Hsiang, as Master of the Recipes so that he could make alchemical gold and prolong the Emperor's life. He failed to make the gold and so was disgraced. This points to an already well-established and widespread practice in alchemy. It was also said to have been practised in the fourth century BC by Tsou Yen, who had a reputation as a miracle-worker and a following among the aristocracy. He was also reputed to have been the first alchemist to combine the search for the Elixir with the search for gold.

The Later Han dynasty (AD 25-220) was a time of great interest in science, astronomy, botany, zoology and medicine and in this period there appeared the first book on alchemy, the Ts'an T'ung Ch'i of Wei Po-yang. Its date was about AD 142 and its title is translated as ‘The Book of the Kinship of the Three,’ but it was written in terms which were too difficult for the understanding of all but initiates. But most of the alchemical texts derive from the T'ang dynasty (AD 618-960), which maintained this interest, especially in the alchemical branch of Taoism.

The language of the Ts'an T'ung Ch'i being too complicated and esoteric to be of general use, it is to Ko Hung that we must turn for the earliest complete treatise. He lived about AD 260 to 340 and is regarded as the most famous of writers on Chinese alchemy. He is supposed to have written several hundred books but his known work is the Pao P'u Tzu nei p'ien, usually referred to as the Pao P'u Tzu, though this was, in fact, a pseudonym he adopted and can be translated as ‘The Master who preserves his pristine simplicity,’ which has also been rendered as ‘Old Sobersides.’ The work is in two parts, the nei p'ien, comprising some twenty scrolls, and the wei p'ien, some fifty. He says: ‘My nei p'ien, telling of gods, genii, prescriptions and medicines, ghosts and marvels, transformations, maintenance of life, extension of years, exorcising evils and banishing misfortune, belongs to the Taoist school. My wei p'ien, giving an account of success and failure in human affairs and of good and evil in public affairs, belongs to the Confucian school.’¹

It was Ko Hung who was responsible for the delightful definitions of classical Taoism and Confucianism. He was asked: ‘Of Confucianism and Taoism, which is the more difficult?’ He replied: ‘Confucianism is difficulty in the midst of facility; Taoism is facility in the midst of difficulties; in it all annoyances are lifted with an inner harmony that grows of itself; perfect freedom of action and thought; no fear, no grief.’ Taoists ‘reject specialization in worldly matters, wash away all trickeries, forget wealth and neglect honours, block repression and encourage free expression, are not concerned about the loss of anything, do not glory in success and are not saddened by denigration and take no delight in praise.’

Ko Hung regarded the existing scrolls for medicines as incomplete, confused and often lacking in treatment for many critical illnesses. He said that they employed expensive ingredients only available to the rich, whereas his scrolls would be found to mention all the medicines and give full treatment for all serious illnesses: ‘Any household possessing this book can dispense with the services of a physician. Further, it is not always possible to find a physician at a moment's notice and when you do find one he may not wish to come immediately.’ (This strangely modern passage was written nearly 2000 years ago!)

Chinese alchemy, being more concerned with longevity and immortality than with the making of gold, was naturally involved with finding the Elixir of Immortality and with prescriptions for prolonging life. When challenged that he was attempting the impossible in trying to overcome mortality in this life, Ko Hung replied that although the deaf could not hear thunder or appreciate music, and the sun and the splendour of the Emperor's robes were invisible to the blind, it did not mean that these things did not exist. His recipe for long life was the use of appropriate medicines, breathing exercises and philosophical thought. Alchemy, like all esoteric lore, had to be learned from an adept and Ko Hung's master, Cheng Yin, at over eighty, had black hair, a ‘full cheerful face’ and could draw a strong cross-bow and shoot a hundred paces; he walked hundreds of miles and could drink two demijohns of wine without becoming drunk; he climbed mountains with agility and crossed precipitous places and dangerous heights which daunted younger men. He ate and drank the same things as anyone else, but could go for unlimited days without food and without feeling hunger.

In his writings Ko Hung maintained that alchemical change was only one facet of the universal transformations in Nature. ‘It is clear, therefore, that transformation is something spontaneous in Nature. Why then should we demur at the possibility of making gold and silver from other things? Look at the fire obtained from heaven with the burning-mirror, and the water got at night [dew] from the moon-mirror; are they different from ordinary fire and water? . . . I guarantee that mercury can vapourize and that gold and silver can be sought successfully . . . the Manuals of the Immortals tell us . . . that it is in the nature of gold and silver that one can make them.’ In his time there were treatises which contained recipes and formulae for ‘melting jade,’ ‘transforming gold’ and making ‘talisman water.’ But these obscure and probably esoteric terms notwithstanding, Professor Needham, the great authority on the development of Chinese science, says that Ko Hung's Pao P'u Tzu ‘contains some scientific thinking at what appears to be a high level.’

Ko Hung disapproved of the recluse-alchemists seeking their own immortality to the neglect of their dependents, as so many did: ‘To turn one's back upon wife and children and make one's abode in the mountains and marshes, uncaringly to reject basic human usage . . . is hardly to be encouraged. If by some good fortune they can become immortal and still go on living at home, why should they seek to mount specially to the heavens?’ Once the preparation of the divine Elixir has been achieved successfully ‘you and your whole household, not just you alone, will become immortals.’ He also says that this state of immortality cannot be attained without good deeds, loyalty, friendliness and trustworthiness.

This condition of immorality was known as that of the hsien, the genie or immortal, and the alchemist aimed at achieving hsien-hood, of which there were several grades, as will be seen later. Strangely, Ko Hung's death was said to be consistent with the lowest grade, the shih chieh hsien, the ‘corpse free,’ one whose corpse disappears, leaving only the clothes or some identifying object behind. At his death he was encoffined but later it was found that his body had disappeared, only his clothes remaining.

While Ko Hung, Wei Po-yang and other early alchemists can be traced in historical records, many of the early names and the stages of alchemy are found only in legend, for which the Chinese have the delightful phrase ‘wild history.’ The most important of these legendary characters is undoubtedly the Yellow Emperor, Huang Ti, who traditionally reigned from about 2704 to 2595 BC. He was regarded as the first and greatest of Taoist immortals and alchemists and was said to have learned, not only from his Three Immortal Maids, but also from an Immortal who lived on a mountain, who, after considerable persuasion, instructed the Emperor in the understanding of the Tao, of sciences, meditation and medicines. Huang Ti was reputed to have written the Inner Classics. He became an Immortal, or hsien, himself and after reigning for over a hundred years he ascended to heaven on the back of a dragon, taking with him some seventy members of his domestic household and court, in full view of the populace. Others of his retainers, anxious to go heavenward with him, hung on to the whiskers of the dragon, but they gave way and the hangers-on, together with the Emperor's bow, fell to the ground. The people gazed at the Emperor and dragon until they disappeared into the heavens. The fallen bow was collected and venerated. Although there was a tomb and a shrine built for the Yellow Emperor it was said that it was later found to be devoid of a corpse and contained only a sword and shoes.

Chang Tao-ling founder of the popular Taoism and the first Taoist pope

Another legendary character was the Emperor YÜ the Great, traditionally known as ‘the happy miner.’ He was a smelter who ‘pierced the mountains’ and ‘made the earth healthy.’ He knew the difference between male and female metals and employed the yin-yang principles in all his work, dividing his cauldrons into yin and yang. There were nine of these, four yin and five yang. Here it is of interest to note the early appearance of the yin-yang doctrine, the importance of the number nine, which runs through all alchemy and Chinese lore, and the division of the number into even (yin) and odd (yang) numbers. As we shall see, the yin-yang symbolism is employed right through Chinese alchemy as the two powers of mercury and sulphur, the lunar and solar.

The legendary accounts of the origins of alchemy are not confined to the Chinese ‘wild history;’ in the West there is the story that fallen angels were responsible for teaching the science of alchemy to the women they married on earth. Another tradition claims that alchemy owed its inception to Hermes, the Egyptian Thoth, God of Wisdom, or that Isis won the secret from an angel in return for sexual favours, and handed it to her son Horus. Yet another legend is that God revealed the secrets of alchemy to Moses and Aaron, both master magicians.

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ALCHEMY EAST AND WEST

Chinese alchemy, while often running parallel with that of the West, and showing considerable similarity with Indian beliefs, for example the idea of a drug which could prolong life, the Elixir of Immortality, which appears in India a thousand years before Christ, holds no definite proof of common origins, but much of exchange of thought. The same argument rages over the beginnings of alchemy as over symbolism: whether such ideas and symbols ‘migrated’ from one country to another in trading and cultural contacts, or arose spontaneously in different civilizations and widely separated parts of the world.

In view of the universal similarities in the content and types of dreams and in the workings of the subconscious mind, as demonstrated by Jung's work, it is reasonable to suppose that in waking life the same types and ideas also rise spontaneously in the human mind. In mythology, religion, symbolism, fairy tale and folklore and such early sciences as alchemy and astrology, while the local colouring of dreams and thoughts is naturally different, the basic contents, symbolism and psychological implications appear to be universal; but while there are similarities, there are also differences in East and West. The answer to the question of migration versus spontaneous growth lies probably in a degree of both. Military conquests, trade and cultural exchanges obviously spread ideas and knowledge, while, on the other hand, it is only natural that people the world over should have asked the same questions about their environment, the cosmos in which they lived and their relationship with it.

There seems to have been a considerable exchange of knowledge between China and India; it is known that alchemical practices were prevalent in both countries well before the Christian era and there was definite evidence of exchange when a Chinese Emperor of the T'ang dynasty sent an envoy, Wang Hsüan-ts'e, to India between AD 643 and 665; there are indications that he made two visits during this time. He was a specialist in prolonging life—that is to say, an alchemist—and a noted magician. He brought back with him an Indian Brahmin, Narayamasvamin, who was an alchemist and physician, while another Indian magician came over from Kashmir in 664-5 on the orders of the Emperor Kao Tsung: this magician was thought to have possessed the drug of longevity. Waley maintains that there is no doubt that ‘a definite give and take went on between China and India during the T'ang dynasty,’ but that Chinese techniques were already well developed long before any known contact with India.

Other branches of early alchemy were established in Babylonia and Chaldea; the Persians were skilled in magic, alchemy and medicine, while from Egypt came the great Hermetic tradition which passed to Greece, Greek culture being spread widely later by the conquests of Alexander the Great. Arabian alchemy also rose from the Alexandrian School in Egypt but was, at the same time, in touch with Chinese thought. From Greek and Arabic culture alchemy spread into Europe, but showed a direct inheritance from Hermes/Thoth. Arabic and Byzantine alchemy were, like the ancient Hellenic practices, a mixture of magic, astrology and mysticism touched with the tradition of Hermes Trismegistus.

Some authorities have maintained that all alchemy came from China originally and spread westward later; others believe that it arose in Egypt. Babylon has also been suggested as the source, while others again, as has been said, have propounded the theory that the same ideas and concepts arose spontaneously and existed simultaneously in different countries. However, the idea most basic to Chinese alchemy, the Elixir of Life,