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    Structural Design of Buildings
    Structural Design of Buildings
    Structural Design of Buildings
    Ebook779 pages7 hours

    Structural Design of Buildings

    By Paul Smith

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    About this ebook

    Covering common problems, likely failures and their remedies, this is an essential on-site guide to the behaviour
    of a building’s structure. Presented in a clear structure and user-friendly style, the book goes through all the structural aspects of a building and assesses the importance of the different components. It explains the structural behaviour of buildings, giving some of the basics of structures together with plenty of real-life examples and guidance.



     

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherWiley
    Release dateFeb 16, 2016
    ISBN9781118865507
    Structural Design of Buildings
    Author

    Paul Smith

    PAUL SMITH is a dedicated father of two and an expert trainer in leadership and storytelling techniques. As the author of the popular Lead with a Story, he has seen his work featured in The Wall Street Journal, Time, Forbes, The Washington Post, Success, and Investor's Business Daily, among others.

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      Structural Design of Buildings - Paul Smith

      Introduction

      The intention of this publication is to embark on a journey taking the reader through a brief history of buildings, how the construction of buildings has evolved over the years and then examining in more detail the structure of buildings and their principal elements. We also examine other factors which affect the stability and structure of buildings, including ground investigations and environmental factors, and detail the materials used in their construction. Finally, we examine structural failures of buildings, their likely causes and common remedies.

      This book explains some of the structural engineering principles in the design of residential dwellings and their various structural elements. Some structural theory has been included to demonstrate and reinforce understanding of the comments made. In addition, structural calculations have been included to demonstrate the key points. Diagrams and photographs add clarity.

      The theoretical concepts contained in this book are equally applicable to all building structures, whether commercial, traditional or modern. To emphasise some of the issues raised, large examples such as castles and churches are used, which clearly demonstrate the building science and technology.

      It must be understood from the onset that specialist structural advice should be sought before undertaking any alterations, or in the identification of structural failures and defects. This book attempts to provide some guidance on understanding the behaviour and construction of buildings, but should not be taken as an exhaustive text.

      Health and Safety

      It must be recognised that the building and construction industry can be a hazardous environment in which to work, and each individual has responsibility to minimise the risks to both themselves and others.

      There is legislative framework which ensures that everyone involved in the commissioning of works, the design, construction and maintenance of building structures has clearly defined responsibilities for health and safety. It is essential that you are aware of your responsibilities under the legislation to reduce risks and prevent accidents. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 places responsibilities on contractors, members of the public, clients and construction workers, and is enforced by the Health and Safety Executive.

      The Construction Design and Management Regulations 2015 (CDM) place further responsibilities on clients, contractors and designers. Under Regulation 9, a designer must not commence works in relation to a project unless the client is aware of his/her responsibilities. The responsibilities are different for commercial and domestic clients. For domestic clients, unless the designer has a written agreement, the responsibilities must be carried out by the contractor and if more than one contractor is engaged on a project then the client must appoint a principal contractor. This does not mean that the regulations do not have to be carried out, but merely places the responsibilities on another duty holder. The client always has the responsibility for ensuring all pre-construction information is available.

      Commercial clients have responsibility for ensuring a construction phase plan is drawn up by the contractor, and that the principal designer prepares a health and safety file for the project. This is undertaken by another duty holder if the client is domestic.

      Commercial clients also ensure that management arrangements are in place for health, safety and welfare. The regulations make it clear that clients are accountable for their decisions and the approach they have in regard to the health, safety and welfare of the project.

      The client is responsible for the submission of a notice to the Health and Safety Executive subject to the responsibility being undertaken by another duty holder, and with the criteria set out below.

      Projects are notifiable to the Health and Safety Executive if the construction work on a construction site is scheduled to:

      Last longer than 30 working days and have more than 20 workers working simultaneously at any point in the project. Or

      Exceed 500 person-days.

      Works may include alterations, maintenance, construction and demolition.

      The activities that are defined as domestic works require consideration as the client dictates the classification, for example works can be undertaken on a residential dwelling but if these are undertaken by a private landlord or someone engaged in property development, they would be defined as commercial activity and not domestic works because they relate to a trade or business.

      Although in the case of a domestic client regulations 4(1) to (7) and 6 must be carried out by another duty holder, the client still has responsibilities under the regulations. If the domestic client fails to make the necessary appointments under regulation 5, the client’s responsibilities are then passed on to other duty holders.

      Ignorance of the legislation is no protection against prosecution, and professionals have been prosecuted for not informing clients of their responsibilities under this legislation. Further information is available from the Health and Safety Executive website. Clients, contractors and designers who are in any doubt about their responsibilities are strongly advised to check with the appropriate body or seek professional advice.

      Building Regulations, Listed Buildings and Planning Consent

      It is also important to recognise that works undertaken on buildings may be subject to other conditions and restraints.

      All works must be compliant with the Building Act 1984 and Building Regulations 2010, Local Authority Planning Conditions, Listed Building Consents and Building Regulation Approvals. These should be checked via your Local Authority before embarking on any works. Other legislation may also apply to the proposed works, such as the Wildlife and Country Act 1981 and the Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010. This legislation makes it an offence to disturb certain species such as bats, and licensed ecologists are required to provide advice.

      There are many factors and considerations that may affect the proposed works, and for this reason it is always wise to seek competent professional advice.

      Chapter 1

      The History of Buildings

      The development of building knowledge

      In order to understand the construction of buildings it is necessary to determine the age of the building and the technologies likely to be included in the construction and design of that period. For this reason, this first chapter briefly explains the construction and features of buildings over the years and this is further developed in chapter three where the construction is discussed in more detail.

      Since the beginning of time man has been engaged in building structures and it is remarkable that many of the early structures still exist. The Neolithic period as early as 6500–10 200 BC saw the first structures being made which may have been simple huts and bridges but nevertheless commenced mankind’s quest to construct buildings. Buildings continued to develop through the Mesopotamian, Ancient Greek and Ancient Egyptian periods, which ranged from 6000 BC until 146 BC, and some of these structures – such as the pyramids – are a lasting legacy to the ingenuity and understanding of building construction principles. Following this, the period of the Ancient Romans from around 753 BC until 476 AD saw large-scale buildings become more commonplace. As techniques and materials became better understood, more adventurous structures were constructed.

      The Medieval period of the 12th century until the 18th century saw timber frame houses being constructed and some of the early timber frame houses of this era still exist, such as the Medieval Merchants House in Southampton, Hampshire. The development of these structures is intrinsically linked to the understanding of materials and the behaviour of structures which carpenters gained over these centuries.

      Masons involved in the construction of churches would travel across the east and west, refining techniques and applying them to new and larger structures. One such example is the development of the arch from a circular arch to a gothic pointed arch, which improved its ability to carry loads, thus resulting in larger-scale and more impressive structures. This is evident in the late 16th century when large glass windows became fashionable in churches to provide light, which also had a significant theological meaning.

      The understanding of flying buttresses to resist large lateral and horizontal loads meant that vaulted ceilings could be constructed which accommodated large spans. The first example in England was in Durham Cathedral, which was commenced in 1093. Other early examples include the apse of the Basilica of Saint-Remi in Reims dating from 1170.

      Although some of the structural principals were understood, many were based on trial and error and then carried through as tried and tested means of developing structures.

      Such scholars as Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote some of the earliest books on architecture, and his work De architectura (known as Ten Books of Architecture) is the only surviving book from the classical period. This provided dimensions for columns based on the number and type of column used and the style of temple required. The height of the column was expressed as a multiple of the diameter. This work was not discovered until 1414 in a library in Switzerland, and interestingly there had been no other printed works prior to this time.

      During the Renaissance period, in 1450, Leon Battista Alberti published De re aedificatoria, which translates as The Art of Building. This was one of the first printed books on architecture. Later, Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) published Regole generali d’architettura, which translates as General Rules of Architecture. Then, in 1570, Adrea Palladio published I quattro libra dell’architettura, which translates as Four Books of Architecture. This final publication carried many of the Renaissance ideas into Europe.

      Prior to these publications there were very few books for architects and masons to reference how structures were constructed. Following the Renaissance period (15th–17th centuries), more information became available.

      During the years 1100–1200, fire was the major concern and a hazard in built-up cities. The construction of houses during this time was predominantly in timber, and densely populated areas resulted in accommodation being provided by extending existing properties and adding additional storeys.

      In 1666 the Great Fire of London transformed building control and regulation in the UK. The following year the London Building Act banned the use of timber and insisted on the use of brick and stone in the construction of houses. In 1694, following another major fire in Warwick, more major cities were prompted to introduce Building Acts based upon that introduced in London. By the 18th century, most cities had a Building Control Authority and had adopted a Building Act.

      The Building Act of 1858 meant that plans had to be deposited with the authorities for new buildings and alterations. This makes it easier – after this period – to ascertain the history and construction of properties throughout the UK.

      Styles of architecture and building construction

      It is remarkable that today we still dwell in houses constructed as far back as Medieval times, and it is at this point that we begin our analysis of the structures of buildings based on the techniques used in the past.

      Medieval

      The majority of the remaining residential dwellings of this period are of timber frame. Predominantly these were of cruck construction or box frame, where the roof is a separate structure to the walls. Medieval buildings tended to have thick timber members which were irregular in shape, and the timber posts were placed directly onto or inserted into the ground. The floor joists were generally large and laid flat rather than upright, typically these would be 200 mm × 150 mm timbers. Figure 1.1 shows a photograph of a typical cruck frame construction used in a house in Herefordshire.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.1: Photograph of typical cruck construction in Herefordshire.

      In their simplest form, Medieval buildings were four-bay cruck frame structures with a large hall occupying at least two of the bays. The open-plan design centred around a large fire, which was the only means of heating. Access was gained through two large doors normally located on opposite sides, which formed cross passages. Of the remaining bays, one would form a parlour which would create some privacy for its occupants and the other would be split as a pantry and buttery for storing food and drink. Over 4000 cruck frame buildings remain in the UK today.

      Other forms of construction existed at this time, and stone cottages have been constructed from materials close to hand from a very early period in history. Cob construction is another form of construction with the main component being mud, earth or clay. This form of construction can be traced back to the 14th century and was particularly evident in the south-west and central-southern England.

      Tudor (1485–1560)

      With the exception of churches, most buildings in the Tudor period were also of timber frame construction with box frame construction being dominant. Houses tended to be one-room deep with a limited span, as the walls did not have sufficient load-bearing capacity to support the heavy roof structure. Some masonry brick construction was used to fill the timber panels and some stone construction for windows and quoins.

      Bricks were a luxury product and found only in the homes of the wealthy, and generally in the east and south parts of the country. This was predominantly because the people who knew how to make and use bricks were Flemish immigrants who settled on the east coast.

      Most large houses were constructed around a central hall, with wings containing private chambers at one end and kitchens and service rooms at the other. As today, space within the towns and cities was valuable and the timber frame houses were generally owned by rich merchants. Plots in the cities tended to be long and narrow, and houses often had a rectangular form with the gable end facing onto the street. The ground floor was used for commercial enterprise, with the living accommodation being above. To gain additional space, jetties were introduced to extend over ground floors and create additional storeys.

      The jetties extended the higher storeys forward of the building line into the street, reducing the distance between the facing properties. Consequently, this resulted in an increased fire risk, as fire could travel easily from one building to another. Figure 1.2 is a photograph showing the close proximity of timber frame properties in Leominster, increasing the risk of fire. This was a prominent reason for the spread of the Great Fire of London in 1666.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.2: Photograph showing the close proximity of timber frame housing in Leominster, increasing the risk of fire.

      Initially little consideration was given to external appearance, but towards the end of the Tudor period the finest timber frame houses featured close timber studding, decorative panels and brick panels with diagonal patterns.

      Glazing was not generally used in properties at this time, and only the finest properties enjoyed this privilege. Timber frame houses at this time had shutters and mullions rather than glass.

      Floorboards above the floor joists were usually left exposed and the joists were chamfered and did not have plastered ceilings. Joists were laid flat and were usually 125 mm × 100 mm in size.

      During the Medieval and Tudor periods thatch was the most likely roof covering, and the pitch of the roof had to be steep (generally 45°–60°) to dispel water from the roof. The overhang was deep so that the water was thrown clear of the walls.

      Elizabethan and Jacobean (1560–1660)

      During the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, timber frame houses were still the most popular type of building construction but masonry and brick buildings began to appear and transcend down the social scale.

      In larger houses the house footprint moved away from a large central hall into smaller rooms; fireplaces reduced in size and chimneys were introduced. These were a status symbol and often tall and topped with decorative chimney pots. The buildings often had an E- or H-shaped floor plan.

      Glazing was still only for the privileged, but more modern methods of construction allowed larger areas to be glazed. Windows with patterned glass were being introduced, but more common was a diamond-shaped pane with lead casing.

      Buildings became even more decorative, with some containing hidden messages showing allegiance to the Queen by having an E-shaped floor plan or containing the forbidden Trinity Triangle. During this period of religious division Catholic houses often had secret chambers constructed, known as priest holes.

      Internally, large fireplaces with decorative mantles and elaborate panelling to the walls further demonstrated the wealth of the owner.

      Large columns were introduced to the finest properties, but their proportion did not always match the property. Symmetry became important during this era and properties faced outwards rather than inwards towards courtyards.

      Bricks were becoming more popular and ranged in size from 210 mm to 250 mm in length and 100 mm to 120 mm in depth, with a height of 40 mm to 50 mm. An example of a Jacobean property can be seen in the photograph in Figure 1.3.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.3: Photograph of a Jacobean house of brick construction.

      The commoner houses were still constructed using a timber frame with steeply pitched roofs having thatching or slate tiles. Cruck frame and box frame were still the main methods of construction. Jetties were becoming more common to achieve second storeys in market towns and cities, with the beams becoming more decorative and the introduction of carved finishes. Doors and windows were tall and narrow.

      Restoration (1660–1714)

      The Restoration period brought about great change to architectural style and building construction. Initially with the restoration of Charles II to the throne, many exiled royalists returned home to reclaim their lands and with them came the European influence on architectural style. In addition during this period was the Great Fire of London, the aftermath of which brought sweeping changes with the introduction of the Building Act of London – legislation controlling the structure and materials used in new houses. This began the new era of Building Control.

      New properties were now constructed using mainly masonry and, although some timber frame structures were still being constructed, masonry became more prevalent. There were rapid developments, with properties becoming wider through the introduction of a second room at the rear. Thus, properties became two rooms deep. Quoins became fashionable, and these were highlighted on properties. Steep roofs were introduced, and hips were necessary to achieve this style of roof structure. Dormer windows along the roof line of grand and terraced houses also became noticeable during this period. A Restoration-style property can be seen in the photograph in Figure 1.4.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.4: Photograph of a Restoration-period house in Herefordshire.

      The brick bond changed from English to Flemish, and lintels were typically brick with stone keystones.

      By the end of the 17th century window styles also changed, from casement windows to sash windows. There was a desire to maintain the flat façade of the building and not break the front line when the windows were opened. Single mullions were also popular, with the transom set slightly above the centre – thus the top part of the window was smaller than the bottom.

      Although available in the 13th century, clay tiles became widespread during the 17th century (mainly due to the need to protect properties from fire, thus replacing thatch).

      Window tax

      In 1696 a property tax was introduced on all properties in England and Wales. The window tax was introduced in Scotland in 1748, which was some time after the Union in 1707. Those properties having more than ten windows were subject to an additional tax depending on the number of windows. Interestingly, in Scotland this was later reduced to seven windows.

      This additional property tax was known as the window tax, and at the time windows were in-filled or properties were being built with in-filled windows with the intention of the windows being glazed or re-glazed at a later date (on anticipation of the tax being lifted). The in-filled windows meant that the tax was not payable, but the legislation contained no definition of a window and the smallest opening could be included as a window. The tax was repealed in England, Wales and Scotland in 1851 following the argument that the tax was a tax on health and a tax on light and air. Consequently, properties with in-filled windows are likely to have been constructed before 1851.

      Georgian (1714–1790)

      During the Georgian period houses became much more substantial and focused on symmetry and larger rooms. The architecture was based on Greek and Roman architecture, constructed using uniform stone or brick with Corinthian, Doric and Ionic capitals on columns. The architecture was elegant and based on ancient worlds and temples, with smaller houses using the same approach on a reduced scale. A photograph of a large Georgian-period Grade II listed building can be seen in Figure 1.5.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.5: Photograph of a Grade II listed Georgian property.

      Two-up, two-down properties were introduced in urban areas, with most terraces being constructed of brick with sloping shallow-pitched slate roofs hidden behind parapets. New regulations on fire introduced standards for compartmentalisation of terraced houses. Party walls were built to prevent the spread of fire and carry the weight of the chimney.

      The Building Act 1774 tried to reduce the risk of fire by improving the quality of construction, and houses were rated based on their value and floor area; each category had its own set of structural requirements in terms of foundations, external and party walls.

      Windows were predominantly sash windows with thin wooden glazing bars. On the ground floor the windows were kept smaller to ensure the stability of the building, on the first floor the windows were tall and elegant but these reduced in height on successive floors, with the top-floor windows being almost square. Front doors traditionally contained six panels.

      Terraced houses also had basements with the front door approached at road level, but later in this period the basement protruded above ground level and formed a half basement. Thus, the elevated front door was approached via steps, sometimes spanning the void between the basement and the road.

      Wall construction was achieved by using thin mortar joints, and darker mortars were covered with lime putty to lighten the colour to match the surrounding brickwork.

      As the population grew in rural areas, huge numbers of stone cottages were constructed. These were usually of one or two bays and single storey, with an end chimney.

      Regency (1790–1830)

      The Regency period saw the introduction of stucco, which is render made to look like stone. Elegant buildings became the fashion and towns such as Brighton and Cheltenham displayed fashionably elegant houses. Figure 1.6 is a photograph of a typical terraced property of this era, taken in Malvern.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.6: Photograph of a typical Regency-period terrace in Malvern.

      At this time cement was also used in mortars, which meant that taller, more robust structures could be constructed in masonry. The half basement was still used during this period, and rear extensions accommodating servants became popular. Gothic style began to replace the Greek and Roman styles of the Georgian period.

      Bow windows became fashionable on the finest houses of the wealthy. For terraced properties the first floor accommodated French doors leading to balconies comprised of decorative ironwork. Sash windows were set further back and small timber strips were used, often reinforced with metal strips.

      Roof lines became much shallower with the introduction of lightweight Welsh slate, and this was used in abundance. Roof valleys became popular which were hidden behind the parapets, and Mansard roofs were also used to achieve low pitches. In the suburbs detached and semi-detached houses, known as villas, were also being constructed.

      In 1833, at the end of the Regency period, John Claudius Loudon published a book which contained over 2000 designs for houses: the Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm and Villa Architecture and Furniture. This demonstrates the wide variety of house designs available at the time.

      Victorian (1830–1900)

      Following this came the Victorian era and the Industrial Revolution, which led to many advances in the use of materials and the construction of buildings. The improvements in iron production led to the economic production of pig and wrought iron. Structural-grade iron was now achievable, and this meant that structures began to appear constructed using iron. The introduction of the railways also meant that bridge engineering and huge retaining structures had to be constructed, increasing our understanding of the materials used and the structures’ behaviour.

      The quality and availability of materials improved as goods could be transported all over the country by rail. Towards the end of the Victorian era machine-made bricks became widely available, although these were still expensive and as such were only used to construct the façade of buildings.

      Britain’s population doubled during this time and towns expanded dramatically. Owing to work places being predominantly the mills, collieries and factories, housing was concentrated around these, leading to the densely populated terraced houses known as back-to-back terraces, which can still be seen today.

      Middle-class terraced houses were of substantial construction and contained quite a number of rooms, sufficient to accommodate servants. The basement area was usually given over to the kitchen, larder and scullery, with the servants’ quarters being accommodated in the attic. These properties also had the benefit of a garden.

      The Gothic style was prevalent at this time, but houses were also influenced by other styles of architecture. Buildings were often asymmetrical, with steep-pitched roofs and forward-facing gables. Decorative brickwork was commonplace, and this was complemented by ornate bargeboards. Figure 1.7 is a photograph of the Cotford Hotel in Malvern, which demonstrates the Gothic-style architecture with steep-pitched roofs and ornate bargeboards. The walls are constructed using Malvern stone with ribbon pointing, which is characteristic of this area.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.7: Photograph of the Cotford Hotel in Malvern.

      Doors typically had four panels as opposed to the previous six-panel Georgian style. In terraces, doors were often recessed and set in pairs rather than along the same side of the row.

      With improvements made in the manufacture of glass windows, increased size and number with larger panes and, by the end of the era, coloured glass was a common decorative feature.

      During the Industrial Revolution stone cottages became commonplace and were used for industrial and rural workers alike. Generally constructed using rubble stone walls and lime mortar, the accommodation typically comprised two-up, two-down properties and was used across the country. This method of construction has changed little over time and this type of construction can be found in the south west, Derbyshire, Yorkshire and any area where stone is readily available.

      The use of damp-proof courses was introduced by the Victorians, but it was later when they became used throughout the UK. Early damp-proof courses included asphalt, bitumen, tar, three courses of engineering brick or even such materials as lead and copper.

      Post-1900

      Before the 1900s, local materials were used in the construction of buildings. Walls were of solid brick in towns and cottages were of stone construction with walls some 450–500 mm thick. In later years many of the walls have been rendered in an attempt to improve protection against the infiltration of damp. Parking was not a consideration at this time, since people did not own cars, and consequently properties in the countryside could be constructed in locations some distance from main highways.

      At the turn of the century balconies became fashionable in town houses and looked towards the street. Between 1900 and the 1920s the quality of building materials improved. Decorative brickwork panels using coloured bricks such as buff and blue were seen over window openings, and at eaves and first-floor level. Porches and hallways from the entrance comprised decorative tiles. It was not uncommon for the density of housing to be 20 to 30 houses per acre, particularly in terraced rows in cities and towns. Figure 1.8 is a photograph of a typical semi-detached house of this period.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.8: Photograph of a typical brick semi-detached house of the 1900–1920s era.

      During the 1920s the cavity wall was used more extensively, but it should be noted that cavity walls had been in use since the 1870s in the west of England and parts of Ireland in an attempt to prevent the penetration of damp. The density of housing was reduced to six to ten houses per acre, and larger gardens were provided as minimum distance rules on the close proximity of back-to-back housing were introduced.

      The accommodation became more spacious and the concept of housing estates began to become established. During this era social housing was introduced, and this new concept meant that large, spacious estates began to grow.

      1930s housing saw the widespread implementation of the cavity wall and hipped roofs, with large overhangs over fashionable bay windows that extended over both storeys. The gables extended over the bay windows and could be mock Tudor or tiled with timber framing. Another characteristic of this period was the recessed front door, usually with windows either side and approached through a brick arch. Housing estates became more densely populated than in the 1920s. Figure 1.9 is a photograph of a typical 1930s property.

      Image described by caption.

      Figure 1.9: Photograph showing a typical 1930s property.

      In the 1940s the construction of houses was halted as a result of the war. During the war the housing stock was reduced considerably as a result of bomb damage, particularly in the major cities. This led to a post-war housing shortage and to cope with demand approximately 156 000 prefabricated houses

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