Critical Approaches to Joseph Conrad

Critical Approaches to Joseph Conrad

CRITICAL APPROACHES

TO JOSEPH CONRAD

EDITED BY

Agata Szczeszak-Brewer

© 2015 University of South Carolina

Published by the University of South Carolina Press

Columbia, South Carolina 29208

www.sc.edu/uscpress

24  23  22  21  20  19  18  17  16  15

10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

can be found at http://catalog.loc.gov/.

ISBN: 978-1-61117-529-5 (cloth)

ISBN: 978-1-61117-530-1 (ebook)

Front cover illustration: elephant photograph

© shutterstock.com/Donovan van Staden

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Chronological List of Works by Joseph Conrad

Introduction

AGATA SZCZESZAK-BREWER

PART I

Conrad’s Contexts

Joseph Conrad: Historical and Cultural Contexts

BARRY MORTON

Conrad’s Critical Reception

JOHN G. PETERS

PART II

Critical Approaches to Heart of Darkness

The great demoralization of the land:

Postcolonial Ecology in Heart of Darkness

GREG WINSTON

The Elephant in the Text: Toward a Post-Humanist

Reading of Heart of Darkness

WILLIAM ATKINSON

Conrad and Coppola: Rendering Empire Visible

JONATHAN ELMORE

Reinventing the Congo through Western Eyes: Echoes of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness in Michaela Wrong’s In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz

MAWULI ADJEI

PART III

Critical Approaches to Other Major Texts

The Imitable Joseph Conrad

NISHA MANOCHA

Maternal Return: Lord Jim’s Spectral Narrative

CAROLA M. KAPLAN

The Other Side of the Page in Typhoon

THOMAS JACKSON RICE

Ideas Have Consequences: Women in the

Compromised World of Nostromo

RUTH NADELHAFT

History in Ruins: Reading Nostromo

CAMELIA RAGHINARU

A Simple Tale? The Writing and Rewriting of The Secret Agent

ANDREW GLAZZARD

The Secret Sharer: When the Other Is the Self

ANNA KRAUTHAMMER

Sensationalized Stories of Russian Revolutionary

Terrorism in Under Western Eyes

JENNIFER MALIA

Chance and Betrayal in Under Western Eyes

ROBERT MCPARLAND

Appendix: Sources for Further Reading

JOHN G. PETERS

Notes

Works Cited

Contributors

Index

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My special thanks go to John G. Peters and Gregory Britton for providing invaluable feedback on this project in its early stages and to Emiliano Aguilar and Ryan Horner for helping out with editing and indexing. I also appreciate the hospitality of the National Library of Ireland and the University of Gdańsk during my sabbatical leave in Europe. All the contributors to this volume deserve applause for tireless work despite Hurricane Sandy’s widespread destruction and several other life-changing events. Finally, I am deeply grateful to Josh and Kuba for their patience, love, and an occasional comic relief.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF WORKS

BY JOSEPH CONRAD

Fiction

Almayer’s Folly, 1895

An Outcast of the Islands, 1896

The Nigger of the Narcissus, 1897

Tales of Unrest, 1898

Lord Jim, 1900

Youth, a Narrative; and

Two Other Stories, 1902

Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903

Nostromo, 1904

The Secret Agent, 1907

A Set of Six, 1908

Under Western Eyes, 1911

’Twixt Land and Sea, 1912

Chance, 1914

Within the Tides, 1915

Victory, 1915

The Shadow-Line, 1917

The Arrow of Gold, 1919

The Rescue, 1920

The Rover, 1923

Tales of Hearsay, 1925

Collaborations

The Inheritors, 1901

Romance, 1903

The Nature of a Crime, 1909

Nonfiction

The Mirror of the Sea, 1906

Some Reminiscences (A Personal Record), 1912

Notes on Life and Letters, 1921

Last Essays, 1926

Introduction

AGATA SZCZESZAK-BREWER

I

Joseph Conrad does not go out of style. Despite the controversy surrounding Heart of Darkness and the debate about racism in Conrad’s depiction of Africa, or maybe because of that dispute, Conrad occupies a prominent spot in literature curricula and scholarly conversations. Could his guardians, concerned about young Joseph’s less-than-stellar school performance and his cigar habit, predict that this defiant son of a Polish revolutionary would become one of the most prominent authors in the British canon? That almost ninety years after his death, his fiction would still be debated, not only at professional conferences and in classrooms, but on the public radio? In 2009, National Public Radio aired Robert Siegel’s interview with Chinua Achebe, one of Conrad’s fiercest critics. Listening to Siegel’s All Things Considered, I was struck by how contemporary and relevant Conrad’s fiction, including the famous (or infamous?) novella, still is. Achebe insists in the interview that "the language of description of the [African] people in Heart of Darkness is inappropriate."¹ At that time, I was pondering whether to include Heart of Darkness in my undergraduate course’s reading list. I thought of other critics who still disagree with Achebe’s claim. I thought of intense and engaged debates in my classroom on this very topic whenever I taught the novella. And I decided to include the book in my syllabus.

Aware that most of my undergraduate students would be reading Conrad for the first time, I wanted to give them resources outlining his life, the cultural and historical context of his fiction, and sample critical essays written in a comprehensible language and inviting first-time readers of Conrad to a conversation. It would be helpful, I thought, if those essays came from a diverse group of scholars, emphasizing not only Conrad’s global reach, but also representing a wide range of responses to his texts. I managed to create a patchwork of critical materials in a makeshift course-work file. It was stunning, though, that among many high-quality companions to Conrad there was no single book that would give my students a collection of international voices speaking directly to them in clear prose. That is how this book was born. It contains an overview of the development of Conrad scholarship and a good number of case studies offering a wide and up-to-date range of approaches to his most popular fiction.

Conrad’s texts inspire fascinating conversations about racism, political violence, terrorism, ecology, loyalty, honor, and many other topics. His books brilliantly merge adventure with thoughtful investigation of human motives and desires, but the writer’s own life was so adventurous and complex that it would provide great material for an action-packed movie. And though I personally dislike voiceovers in movies, I can imagine the opening scene: young Conrad sitting over a sepia-colored map, his adult voice narrating: It was in 1868, when nine years old or thereabouts, that while looking at a map of Africa of the time and putting my finger on the blank space then representing the unsolved mystery of that continent, I said to myself, with absolute assurance and an amazing audacity which are no longer in my character: ‘When I grow up I shall go there.’ And of course I thought no more about it until, after a quarter of a century or so, an opportunity offered to go there, as if the sin of childish audacity was to be visited on my mature head.² There was, of course, the Congo. Conrad’s journey there inspired one of the most beautiful and debated texts in the English language.

Conrad was a man of contradictions. He was socially conservative, and he cherished tradition and honor; yet he rejected the Catholic faith, the religion of his ancestors and compatriots. He adored and respected several women in his life, including his mother and a Belgian-born novelist, Marguerite Poradowska (the wife of Conrad’s distant cousin), and yet his texts sometimes reveal a condescending attitude toward his female characters. He was thoughtful and yet spontaneous and even rash; begging family and friends for money, though often generous to others. He was a Polish expatriate whose writing entered the English canon—yet his spoken English was marked by a strong Polish accent. In fact, during his visit to the United States late in his career—already as a widely published and popular Anglophone author—when he addressed workers at Doubleday’s printing works, his listeners found his accent impenetrable, and the secretaries assigned to take down his every word in shorthand abandoned the task in despair.³ Nevertheless, his foreign sounds and appearance didn’t prevent him from entertaining some of the most prominent literary and cultural figures in his Capel House and in other locations, where he discussed literature, ethics, and politics with H. G. Wells, Henry James, R. B. Cunninghame Graham, John Galsworthy, Stephen Crane, Ford Madox Ford, and others. George Gissing summed up many of Conrad’s contemporaries’ amazement: That a foreigner should write like this, is one of the miracles of literature.⁴

II

Joseph Conrad is a pen name of Józef Teodor Konrad Nałęcz Korzeniowski, born in 1857 in Berdyczów—on a land once under the Polish rule, though at the time of Conrad’s birth it had already been taken by Russia in what is known as the Great Partition of Poland. (It now belongs to Ukraine.) The son of a revolutionary, he recalls the oppressive shadow of the great Russian empire as a strong, formative presence in his childhood.⁵ At that time, Poland existed only as a concept, not a political entity. Poland was synonymous with a culture, a history, a language and a geographical region, but not as an independent nation.⁶ The name Konrad testifies to these political tensions, as a tribute to two Konrads in Polish Romantic literature, two patriots—one in Adam Mickiewicz’s Konrad Wallenrod and one in Mickiewicz’s Dziady.

Apollo Korzeniowski, Conrad’s father, was a member of szlachta, or Polish landed gentry, a poet, playwright, and translator of Shakespeare, Dickens, and Victor Hugo. For his anti-Russian revolutionary activities he was exiled to Vologda in 1862, together with his wife and five-year-old son. Conrad’s mother, Ewa Bobrowska, came from a more wealthy family than Apollo. Throughout their exile, Ewa Korzeniowska was ill, and she died in 1865, when Conrad was seven. Conrad’s father died soon after, in 1869, after which young Józef’s maternal uncle, Tadeusz Bobrowski, became his guardian. They moved to Kraków, which was then under Austrian rule. To make up for some gaps in Conrad’s education, Bobrowski hired a private tutor, Adam Marek Pullman—a person Conrad describes with warmth and affection in his memoir A Personal Record. He also spoke affectionately about his uncle, who loved his nephew dearly and worried about his safety and well-being. Some biographers of Conrad, including John Batchelor and Zdzisław Najder, say that Bobrowski misrepresented Apollo’s political activities as impulsive and destructive, contrasting them with his own cautious nature.⁷ Although Conrad’s letters to his uncle were destroyed in the 1917 fire that broke out in Kazimierzówka, we can still peruse letters from Bobrowski to Conrad, writings testifying to a strong bond between the two men, despite Conrad’s challenging behavior. His biographers mention Conrad’s talent for cigars, his nervous breakdowns, and his disobedience.⁸ Later, Conrad suffered from severe depression, debilitating attacks of gout, and—needless to say—irritability. When Bobrowski died in 1894, Conrad looked for a father figure in his literary agent, James Brand Pinker, who fulfilled this role to some extent, lending him money and warning against irresponsible behavior.

But before Conrad began his literary career, his passion was the sea. Having read adventure stories and fiction about distant lands, steeped in the Romantic tradition of quest and exile, he decided at the age of sixteen to go to the coast of France and start a new life on a ship. He remembers this decision in A Personal Record, talking about himself in the third person: After reading so many romances he desired naively to escape with his very body from the intolerable reality of things. He wished to meet, eye to eye, the valorous giant Brandabarbaran, Lord of Arabia, whose armour is made of the skin of a dragon, and whose shield, strapped to his arm, is the gate of a fortified city. Oh, amiable and natural weakness! Oh, blessed simplicity of a gentle heart without guile! Who would not succumb to such a consoling temptation?⁹ Battling numerous setbacks and constantly in debt, he did spend twenty years at sea, first as a tourist, then as a shipmate, and finally as a captain, though he was rather unlucky in securing commands. He credits these years with shaping his sensibilities and values, when he speaks of the English and Scots seamen (a much-caricatured folk) who had the last say in the formation of my character.¹⁰

It seems that Conrad’s determination, talent, and luck made it possible for him to defy other people’s doubts about his future. When as a boy he boasted to his classmates that he was going to become a famous writer, they laughed at him. Similarly, his plan to go to sea was actively discouraged in his family. When in 1873 he went on a twelve-week trip around Europe, Adam Pulman, his tutor, called him an incorrigible, hopeless Don Quixote.¹¹ Yet—despite all these doubts—his family, especially his uncle, helped him realize his dreams and supported him through uncertain times. Conrad occasionally lied to his uncle in his letters to get money from him for what Batchelor calls his extravagant habits and failed financial speculation.¹² Bobrowski patiently sent more and more money to his nephew, admonishing him for irresponsible spending. Apart from sea life, Conrad may have engaged in gun-running as a young man, smuggling on behalf of the Spanish Royalists (a claim disputed by Najder), and may have fought in a duel, although Conrad’s biographers almost universally doubt the existence of that duel, claiming that Conrad invented the story to cover a failed suicide prompted by gambling debts.¹³

After his 1874 journey to Marseille to join the French merchant marine service and his first voyage on a French ship, he eventually started gaining experience at sea and earned more posts and promotions. During his four years in the French merchant marine service, he traveled to the West Indies and Central and South America. Later, while in the British merchant marine service, he sailed to South Africa, India (where he bought a pet monkey), Australia, Thailand, and other remote places.¹⁴ His extensive travel experience gives way to vivid settings in his fiction: the Malay Archipelago, the Congo, the imaginary Latin American republic of Costaguana, a sleepy Kentish village, a teeming metropolis in the heart of the British empire, and Geneva appear in Almayer’s Folly, An Outcast of the Islands, Heart of Darkness, Nostromo, Amy Foster, The Secret Agent, Under Western Eyes, and other novels and short stories.¹⁵

In 1878, Conrad went to Constantinopole (present-day Istanbul) on an English steamer, and upon his return he came to England for the first time. Although he didn’t speak English upon arrival, two years later, he passed his exam for third mate and his subsequent exams for higher positions in the English merchant marine service. A little over a decade after arriving in England and enlisting on an English steamer, he began working on his first novel—in English—Almayer’s Folly. He continued for several more years, writing chapters during his employment at sea and between trips, while waiting for another opportunity to go to sea. Unknown to my respectable landlady, says Conrad of his stay in an apartment in London, it was my practice directly after my breakfast to hold animated receptions of Malays, Arabs, and half-castes.¹⁶

One of the most formative voyages in Conrad’s career was his trip to the Congo in 1890, one he describes in his diary and then, in a fictionalized form, in Heart of Darkness. The cruelty and futility of the Belgian imperial endeavors in the Congo affected his life, as did the life-threatening fever he contracted in Africa. To his first biographer and a friend, Gérard Jean-Aubry, Conrad reportedly said: Before the Congo I was just a mere animal. Peter Edgerly Firchow understands this statement not only through the prism of Africa itself but also of the terrible illness that forced Conrad to be bedridden for months and, therefore, encouraged self-conscious contemplation and revealed his artistic sensibilities.¹⁷ Although Conrad had refused to collect human skulls and send them in batches to the Museum of Craniology in Kraków,¹⁸ the voyage to and through the Congo was still filled with nightmares and proved to be traumatizing.¹⁹

Conrad always stood out among rugged sailors, with his suit and bowler hat, a foreign accent, and impeccable manners. His colleagues ironically called him the Russian Count.²⁰ He finally earned his master’s certificate in 1886 and became a naturalized English subject, which released him from the Russian authority. He seemed, however, to harbor guilt over leaving Poland, which many critics, including Gustav Morf and John Batchelor, see reflected in Lord Jim and other texts. But some scholars—Zdzisław Najder, Ian Watt, and others—contest this guilt theory and suggest that shame may be a more faithful explanation of Conrad’s complex relationship with his homeland, considering the dominance of a widely understood concept of honor in Polish culture and history. On the whole, Conrad rarely made public statements about politics, but he did pen several political essays, including Autocracy and War and The Crime of Partition; his fiction, too, is steeped in the political climate of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Europe and European imperial conquests around the world.²¹

Conrad also abandoned the Catholic faith, a cornerstone of Polish identity at the time of political obliteration of the nation. When in 1896 he married Jessie George, a lower-middle-class woman from London, he decided against a church wedding. They married in a registry office. Jessie, intellectually inferior to her husband, was nevertheless a faithful, down-to-earth companion not only running the household and taking care of their children, Borys and John (born eight years apart), but also occasionally typing for Conrad. Lady Ottoline Morrell famously said of Conrad’s wife that she seemed a nice and good-looking fat creature, an excellent cook, as Henry James said, and was indeed a good and reposeful mattress for this hypersensitive, nerve-wracked man, who did not ask from his wife high intelligence, only an assuagement of life’s vibrations.²² Lady Ottoline Morrell’s words, though condescending, do emphasize Jessie’s comforting presence in Conrad’s life.²³ Even the way Conrad proposed to her foreshadowed his future reliance on her care, despite her own health problems. On the steps of the National Gallery, he urged Jessie to marry him quickly, as he anticipated a decline in his health.

Conrad did fall gravely ill, but not until 1910, when he suffered from a series of gout attacks and nervous breakdowns. Some critics ascribe this illness to his work on Under Western Eyes and to his occupation with topics close to his heart—patriotism, loyalty, and betrayal. Others look back to his break with Ford Madox Ford (his collaborator and friend) and his quarrel with J. B. Pinker as warning signs that his emotional and financial trouble would come to a head. Although he recovered and continued writing until his death in 1924, the frequent attacks of neuralgia and gout made him increasingly irritable with age.

Conrad died in 1924, probably of a heart attack, alone in his room. He was buried in Canterbury, with the epitaph from Spenser’s Faerie Queene carved out in stone: Sleep after Toyle, Port after stormie seas, / Ease after Warre, Death after Life, doth greatly please. That originally these words are spoken by Despayre who is trying to talk the Red Cross Night into suicide is quite significant here. The maritime allusion of Port after stormie seas and the theme of perseverance despite life’s obstacles, indeed despite despair, are touching and apt in the context of Conrad’s adventurous and difficult life.

III

Conrad embarked on his career as a writer when he was already thirty-eight. His first novel, Almayer’s Folly, was published in 1895. Many of his novels, short stories, and essays first appeared in literary magazines such as The Fortnightly Review, The English Review, and Harper’s Magazine. His goal as a writer was, in his own words, by the power of the written word to make you hear, to make you feel—it is, before all, to make you see.²⁴ His creative process was intense, distressing, and often filled with self-doubt. His biographers report that he conversed with his characters from Under Western Eyes when he was suffering from a post-novel breakdown and battling high fever.²⁵ But even in good health, he agonized over each sentence, living the life of his characters, inhabiting their worlds, thinking their thoughts. In A Personal Record, he describes a complete immersion in the lives of his characters in Nostromo. Writing the novel, he engaged his whole being in the landscape of Costaguana and in its complex plot when, all of a sudden, he was interrupted by a visitor. With exasperation, he exclaims: what are twenty lives in a mere novel that one should be rude to a lady on their account?²⁶

In his letter to H. Sanderson, Conrad confesses his doubts about the creative process and his skills: I am like a tight-rope dancer who, in the midst of his performance, should suddenly discover that he knows nothing about tightrope dancing. He may appear ridiculous to the spectators, but a broken neck is the result of such untimely wisdom.²⁷ He wrote in fits and starts, moving between bursts of creative energy and long periods of writer’s block that often overlapped with depression. Significantly, he called his study, where he wrote his fiction, a torture chamber.²⁸ Even his collaboration with Ford Madox Ford, which seemed to lift his spirit on occasion, turned into what he called The Fatal Partnership.²⁹

A nearly disastrous trip to Kraków on the eve of the First World War and his narrow escape via Italy back to England only exacerbated Conrad’s depression and self-doubt. Suffering from another case of writer’s block, Conrad asked in one of his letters to Richard Curle: And who can be articulate in a nightmare?³⁰ But Conrad was articulate throughout his writing career; some claim he was, in fact, too eloquent. F. R. Leavis has criticized Conrad’s adjectival insistence, and some of Conrad’s contemporaries claimed his writing was too foreign and too wordy. Yet, his fiction opens up a vast panorama of human behavior, with all its passions, allegiances, guilt, and contradictions. To read Conrad is to enter a vibrant world of nature’s whims, political and personal betrayal, and personal miscommunications.

Conrad straddled at least two literary modes, the late-Victorian realist and the Modernist. As a novelist, he sat astride two traditions, the nineteenth- century tradition of the thickly plotted novel anchored in action and adventure and the twentieth-century tradition of the novel with its emphasis on irony, on analysis, and on psychological depth.³¹ His Chinese-box narrative style, his impressionism, his narrators’ mocking wit, their frequent confession that it is impossible to describe human beings with veracity and certainty made his novels much more than just sea adventures, as some mistakenly thought. Yes, the sea is a godlike force in many of his novels, but some have very little to do with marine fiction. Conrad’s subject matter includes honor, self-knowledge, loyalty, manliness, political violence, loss of innocence, and testing the limits of loyalty and morality. As Marlow narrates Youth, Heart of Darkness, Lord Jim, and Chance, the readers are often left with more questions than answers about what drives human behavior. Conrad’s narrators do not pretend to know the answer. In his 1896 letter to Garnett, he despairs that one’s own personality is only a ridiculous and aimless masquerade of something hopelessly unknown.³² Conrad remains an elusive writer and, despite the abundance of biographical material available to his readers, a man whose inner life remains a matter of speculation. But this is what makes his fiction so compelling—the constant becoming of his characters, the active, wandering mind of his narrators, the conflicts, the paradoxes, and the unresolved questions in his fiction.

Though Conrad was recognized later in life as one of the most talented and important Anglophone writers, generally the texts he himself considered second-rate brought him the most money and popularity. Chance, for example, which appeared in 1914, often considered inferior by literary critics, was his first major financial success. All of his novels, though, are challenging. Conrad’s prose requires, among other things, that we both fight with and parse out his imagery; that we reconstruct the sequence of a novel’s action and grapple with the significance, at once proleptic and delayed, that his very violation of chronology has produced. And if we can do that, his fiction will yield a most peculiar reward. For no matter how dark his world and how miserable the fates of his characters, his books are almost never depressing. Instead we read them with an exhilarating sense of difficulties faced and met, held by the drama of the writing itself, as if we have submitted ourselves to the destructive element, and kept our heads up.³³ J. M. Barrie, the author of Peter Pan, described Conrad as nervous and intent on the subject at hand. I used to imagine that he was really a pirate, who at any moment was likely to leap from his chair and stick a knife into me!³⁴ Barrie’s wild imagination notwithstanding, reading Conrad’s fiction is a risky and rewarding experience, one prone to rob us of our illusions and certainties about the world, but also one that makes us wander and wonder, question and analyze.

IV

All the contributors to this volume engage Conrad in different ways, from postcolonial and ecocritical perspectives, through explorations of gender, to psychoanalysis, narrative theory, and political analysis. The book opens with Barry Morton’s essay presenting the cultural and historical canvas of Conrad’s life and fiction. It is conveniently divided into three sections: one on Poland, one on the Malay Archipelago, and one on the Congo. Morton’s approach is quite different from the traditionally presented historical background in Conrad companions, often based on inflated historical accounts bordering on Polish nationalist martyrology. His objective presentation of important historical facts will aid readers in their understanding of the historical background of Conrad’s fiction and nonfiction. This chapter is followed by John Peters’s overview of Conrad’s critical reception, indispensable for a beginning reader of Conrad’s fiction. Peters’s suggestions for further reading can be found in the Appendix. Both can serve as excellent reference assignments for undergraduate and graduate students.

Readers who want to explore Heart of Darkness will find the following section illuminating. "Critical Approaches to Heart of Darkness opens with two essays merging ecocritical and postcolonial approaches in their investigation of the natural resources and power struggle in the Congo. Greg Winston’s essay looks at the reception of Conrad in a specialized circle of ecocritical tradition. He explains the history of ecocritical readings of Conrad, and he enters the conversation among Conrad scholars linking the rise of imperial capitalism with Conrad’s descriptions of nature’s depletion in the Congo. William Atkinson next discusses the meaningful absence of the word elephant" in the novella, an absence particularly troubling because its metonym—ivory—seems so prevalent in the narrative. He links the history of elephant hunting to the history of colonialism and the capitalist unwillingness to consider conserving the earth’s limited resources. The following two essays engage Heart of Darkness in comparative conversations with other texts. Jonathan Elmore considers Conrad’s novella vis–à–vis Coppola’s movie Apocalypse Now in light of modernist aesthetics, Hardt and Negri’s concept of empire, and the sovereignty of the modern nation state. He calls for a reorientation of scholarship on Conrad with an eye toward the distinction between imperialism and empire, or its biopolitical capital. Finally, Mawuli Adjei’s essay considers Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Michaela Wrong’s In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz as texts steeped in the same historical, political, and narrative tradition rooted in the Eurocentric imperial discourse.

Nisha Manocha’s The Imitable Joseph Conrad opens the last section of the book. Manocha begins her essay about the author’s reception with Conrad’s letter to Pinker, in which he claims that I don’t resemble anybody; and yet I am not specialised enough to call up imitators as to matter or style. Moving between Conrad’s contemporaries’ response to his early fiction and the more recent imitations of and allusions to Conrad’s style and subject matter, Manocha draws a picture of Conrad as a generative writer who echoes in numerous fictional accounts of non-European settings and people.

In "Maternal Return: Lord Jim’s Spectral Narrative," Carola Kaplan investigates the silences and gaps in Lord Jim, more specifically the omission of the stories of Jewel’s mother and grandmother—untellable and spectral, and yet drawing our attention to the limitations of language and the suppression of signs of social injustice. The text cannot speak directly about the mother, who is a victim and witness of historical trauma, because the text itself is supported by that white, male, colonial history. Narrative gaps are also the subject of Tom Rice’s essay on Typhoon, which explores the novella’s narrative complexity, the epistolary elements in its narration, and the intentional silences seemingly teasing the reader but, in the end, demonstrating Conrad’s awareness that indifferent and inattentive readers routinely fail to reciprocate the writer’s attention. Conrad, on the one hand, panders to his readers by appealing to their religious sensibilities in his indirect references to the Christmas story and, on the other, foretells a shift in his attitude toward his audience, as he is unwilling to cater to inattentive readers.

This volume also includes case studies of other canonical texts by Conrad. Ruth Nadelhaft discusses the strong presence of women in Nostromo and looks at the novel through the angle of feminist theory and class analysis. Nadelhaft claims that Conrad’s inclusion of strong women has long been underappreciated and misunderstood. While her main focus is on Linda and Giselle Viola, Antonia Avellanos, Emilia Gould, and Decoud’s sister, she discusses Conrad’s depiction of the natural world, represented in his text by women, plundered and destroyed by profit-driven men. In "History in Ruins: Reading Nostromo," Camelia Raghinaru explores Nostromo’s panorama of history, sovereignty, state of emergency, and catastrophe. Her interpretation is supported by Walter Benjamin’s view on the nature of sovereignty in his Trauerspiel.

Andrew Glazzard discusses the composition and publication of The Secret Agent, from its beginning as a short story to its serial publication and, finally, its volume publication in 1907. Glazzard’s essay shows that our knowledge of the history of the composition and publication of The Secret Agent enhances our understanding the novel’s themes and techniques. Anna Krauthammer’s "The Secret Sharer: When the Other Is the Self demonstrates that Conrad uses the trope of the double in his story to describe Leggatt as the captain’s hidden self. By presenting the hidden recesses in the human mind and infusing his images of the sea with symbolic connotations, the narrator illustrates the interdependence of relationships aboard the ship" and the consequences of the captain’s suppression of Leggatt as other.

Jennifer Malia’s and Robert McParland’s essays focus on Under Western Eyes. Malia talks about Conrad as a critic of sensationalism in the media, especially the Western press’s feeding the audience with spectacles of violence. McParland’s "Chance and Betrayal in Under Western Eyes focuses on free choice, coincidence, morality, and their relation to Conrad’s technique of narrative disruption. McParland interprets Razumov’s choices and thoughts within the epistemological crisis that has arisen from the implications of Darwinian evolution."

This variety of critical responses is geared mostly toward the students of Conrad—undergraduate and graduate—as well as their professors, who will find a wealth of resources designed to illuminate Conrad’s most popular texts and the breadth of literary criticism generated by his fiction. Reading Conrad, especially reading his fiction for the first time, can be challenging, but the rewards are plenty. Conrad’s fiction prompts us to explore thoughtfully the value and challenges of loyalty, integrity, and the ethical code. It teases us with difficult form only to open up vast possibilities of interpreting the formal challenges that mirror the inner turmoil of fictional characters—their choices, regrets, betrayals, and acts of courage. A recently published book about Conrad’s relevance to the contemporary world, Conrad in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Carola Kaplan, Peter Mallios, and Andrea White, proves that Conrad’s fiction is still relevant today, in the wake of September 11 attacks.³⁵ We now read his novels with new questions about terrorism, colonialism, anarchism, ecology, and sexuality.

PART I

Conrad’s Contexts

Joseph Conrad

Historical and Cultural Contexts

BARRY MORTON

Three different geographical zones bear considerably on Conrad’s social and political outlook: first, his native Poland and its troubled history as a partitioned country. Conrad was in a sense exiled from his homeland—which did not even exist as an independent nation for most of his life—yet he thought of himself as a Pole. Second, Conrad worked as a merchant sailor and almost all of his early fiction was set in the Congo area of Central Africa and the Malaysian Archipelago in southern Asia. After some two decades of sailing, Conrad would settle in England and would remain a professional writer for the rest of his life. As an extremely well-traveled person, Conrad was also very cosmopolitan in outlook and eventually branched out greatly both in theme and geographical range. Even so, his upbringing and his pre-novelist years as a sailor are vital to understanding his oeuvre.

Poland: The Partitioned Homeland

Joseph Conrad was born to Polish parents in 1857, although the country that they aspired to belong to had been extinct for over