GRE: A Strategic Approach with online diagnostic

We know you’re serious about acing the New GRE. That’s why REA developed a brand-new book with online diagnostics to ensure that you succeed on the world’s leading graduate-admissions test. Our content is completely new and 100% aligned with the New GRE.

Flexibly structured to help test candidates learn, practice, and refine an efficient approach to the test, the book is designed to meet you wherever you are in your GRE prep.

At REA, we bring you a class-in-a-book, prepared by a nationally recognized one-on-one tutor, with all the print and digital resources you need from one convenient source. We focus strictly on helping you do your best.

With that in mind, REA’s New GRE Prep offers:

1

Focused tutorials

Cover everything you need to conquer each of the three sections of the GRE revised General Test: Verbal, Quantitative, and Analytical Writing.

2

Flexible study plan

Create your own study schedule based on how many weeks you have before the test and how much material you need to learn.

3

Online diagnostics

REA’s exclusive diagnostic feedback pinpoints your strengths and weaknesses in each section of the test, saving you time and focusing your efforts.

4

Three full-length practice tests

The book includes two full-length GRE practice tests with fully explained answers. One additional diagnostic practice test is available online.

5

Proven GRE test-item strategies

Drawing from his years of experience as a GRE tutor and test-prep expert, our author gives you the winning tips and strategies that will turn the test to your advantage.

6

Resources galore

You’ll find many extras, including handy references for the math and verbal portions of the GRE, warm-up drills, and graduate school admissions advice.

Good Luck on the GRE!

New GRE: A Strategic Approach with online diagnostic

Doug Tarnopol

Norman Levy

Elisabeth Rollins

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Research & Education Association

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New GRE: A Strategic Approach

Copyright © 2012 by Research & Education Association, Inc. Prior editions copyright © 2010 under the title GRE General Test and copyright © 2003, 2002, 1999, 1998 under the title The Best Test Preparation for the GRE General Test by Research & Education Association, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

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LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: Publication of this work is for the purpose of test preparation and related use and subjects as set forth herein. While every effort has been made to achieve a work of high quality, neither Research & Education Association, Inc., nor the authors and other contributors of this work guarantee the accuracy or completeness of or assume any liability in connection with the information and opinions contained herein and in REA’s companion software and online materials. REA and the authors and other contributors shall in no event be liable for any personal injury, property or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use or reliance upon this work.

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Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

LETTER TO THE STUDENT

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

ABOUT RESEARCH & EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

REA ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

STOP!

YOUR DIAGNOSTIC TEST SCORE

CHAPTER 1 - About the GRE

CHAPTER 2 - Global Strategies

CHAPTER 3 - The Verbal Section

CHAPTER 4 - The Math Section

CHAPTER 5 - The Analytical Writing Section

SUMMING UP

Paper-and-Pencil Test 1

Paper-and-Pencil Test 2

Appendix A - Score Conversion Table

Appendix B - Math Reference

Appendix C - GRE Vocabulary Enhancer

Appendix D - Drills and Practice Questions

Appendix E - A Quick Reference Guide to Graduate School

INDEX

LETTER TO THE STUDENT

Welcome to the wonderful world of GRE test preparation! Well, OK, it’s not so wonderful. I took the GRE back in the day while in the process of applying to graduate school in the history of science. No, I didn’t quite see the relevance either.

But whatever your (or my) opinion of the GRE, or of standardized testing in general, the reality is that you’ll have to take this test. Doing as well as you can will not only increase your chances for acceptance to graduate programs but can also play a significant role in getting internal or external funding both before and during your dissertation.

Fortunately, there is nothing on this test that you haven’t already learned. Unfortunately, much of it you learned a decade or more ago and haven’t really used since, especially the material found in the math section. The formula for the volume of a right cylinder doesn’t often come up at cocktail parties. Furthermore, the content, regardless of how familiar it may or may not be, comes packaged in mostly unfamiliar question types (we’ll call them item types for reasons that will be made clear)—and, what’s worse, you don’t have all day to answer each item. This is a speed test at least as much as it is a content test.

Your task, then, is to master not only the content, but also the specific ways in which the content is tested in various item types—and then you must apply that mastery as fast as you possibly can without being careless or taking too many risks.

So, what is to be done? First of all, we must break up the tasks in order not to become overwhelmed. Then we’ll diagnose your strengths and weaknesses by taking you through a full-length, computer-based diagnostic test. Next, we’ll take you through the structure, timing, and scoring of the test. All of the strategies in this book have been reverse-engineered from the structure, timing, and scoring of the test.

Then we’ll dive into a concise review of the content tested on each section. These sections will be followed by out-of-format items designed to reinforce your content knowledge. It’s important to get the content down cold before confronting how that content is tested in the sometimes weird-looking item types.

Each item type will be presented and analyzed—the anatomy and physiology of the item type, so to speak. Next, a variety of strategies, each of which has been reverse-engineered from the item types, will be presented. Part of your job will be to figure out through practice which particular strategies work best for you. We’re very empirical! And we’ll provide a large test bank of in-format items to practice with.

Finally, we’ll bring in the all-important aspect of timing, both at the item and section level. To this end, we’ll have two more full-length, paper-based practice tests you can use for practice.

As you no doubt know, if learning were simply a matter of information exchange, life would be much simpler. But it isn’t. Emotions and attitudes play a large, often decisive role in learning. Attention must be paid to such affective issues, and, to the extent that a book can do so, this one will. Based on my years of tutoring, I have a good sense of how anxiety and other entirely understandable emotional responses can interfere with learning, and I’ll give suggestions of how to overcome these normal, nearly ubiquitous reactions.

I hope you find this book helpful! I welcome your reactions; feel free to e-mail me at [email protected].

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

The book’s lead author (core review and strategies), Doug Tarnopol, M.A., brings a unique mix of talents and experience to test-prep teaching, tutoring, and instructional design. Doug has fifteen years of varied experience in test preparation. He has taught and tutored students of all backgrounds and advised both students and parents; he has also developed instructional print materials, designed online tests and courses, and run online academic support. Doug combines over a decade of test-preparation experience in teaching, instructional design, and front-line customer and academic support with an academically rigorous education.

Doug graduated magna cum laude from Cornell University in 1992, earning an A.B. (Cornellese for B.A.) in History and writing a senior honors thesis on twentieth-century evolutionary theory. He continued his work in the history and sociology of science at the University of Pennsylvania, receiving an M.A. in 1996.

While in graduate school in the 1990s, Doug began teaching SAT classes for Kaplan Test Prep. After completing his graduate work, Doug moved to New York City and continued teaching for Kaplan, adding PSAT, SCI HI, SAT II: Writing, SAT II: Math, GMAT, GRE, and other courses to his repertoire. In 1999, after serving as Pre-College Student Advisor at Kaplan’s flagship Manhattan center, Doug became a curriculum developer in what was then called the Kaplan Learning Services division, designing instructional material for state proficiency exams. He was soon promoted to Assistant Editor.

In 2000, after serving briefly as Manager of Pre-College Curriculum for Kaplan Test Prep, Doug joined the brand-new Kaplan Test Prep Online division, becoming Manager of Academic Services. Later promoted to Associate Director, Doug helped to create, coordinate, and maintain website, product, technical, and academic support activities, including management of admission and GMAT/GRE essay review services and the design of online course homepages and assets.

In November of 2002, Doug joined Peterson’s new Test Prep division as Associate Program Manager, designing and gathering content for online tests for SAT, ACT, GMAT, GRE, and several CLEPs, as well as doing market research on various SAT online courses. He also worked on Peterson’s adaptive online course for the SAT, which won Brandon Hall’s Gold Excellence in E-Learning Award for 2003. Promoted to Program Manager in early 2003, Doug designed and edited Peterson’s adaptive PSAT online course.

In October of 2003, Doug launched Tarnopol Learning Services, LLC, a tutoring and instructional design company. In addition to private tutoring, Doug authored six titles in SparkNotes’ 2005 SAT Power Tactics series—Test-taking Strategies, Critical Reading: Sentence Completions, Critical Reading: Reading Passages, Writing: Multiple-Choice Questions, The Essay, and Vocabulary Builder, all of which are available, complete with pre- and post-tests authored by Doug, online.

Doug has also edited scholarly books and articles in the history of science; designed Flash simulations and diagnostic skills assessments for corporate training courses; expert-reviewed test-prep books, such as Peterson’s current ARCO AP Biology book; written and edited learning objects for adaptive online courses for the Texas high-stakes exit exam; and developed instructor-led training materials for both California’s high-stakes exit exam and a thirteen-lesson basic writing skills course.

Since moving to Rhode Island in 2005, Doug has been tutoring students for the SAT and ACT, as well as admissions-essay review, GRE, and GMAT. He has also tutored high school students in American history, English literature, biology, and writing, as well as college students in history, writing skills, and algebra.

Currently, when not tutoring students for the SAT, ACT or GRE, Doug is working on a book for the new AP Biology exam.

Doug also writes fiction and poetry. He is an avid drummer, beginning bassist, and voracious reader. He currently lives in Cranston, Rhode Island, with his wife, Donna. When not reading or watching classic films or The Simpsons, they can usually be found playing Scrabble or enjoying hide-and-seek with their recently acquired (and quite adorable) cat, Grendel. In fact, you can pretty much assume that most pages in this book were written with Grendel in his current position: on Doug’s lap.

Elizabeth Rollins, M.A., has been a curriculum developer, editor, and content author for educational publishers for more than ten years. Formerly the Director of Research and Development for GRE Programs at the Princeton Review, Elizabeth directed a complete revision of the then existing GRE course. She has also written lessons and assessment material for high-stakes and national standardized tests.

Elizabeth wrote all of the verbal test items for the two paper-and-pencil and two computer-based practice tests.

Norman Levy, Ph.D., has been the Director of Mathematics and Testing for NJL College Preparation in Albertson N.Y., for the past twenty-five years. He coordinates all the instruction and materials for the math preparation required for AP Calculus, GRE, GMAT, LSAT, SAT I, ACT, SAT II, and PSAT. He also personally instructs individuals and groups in all levels of mathematics, ranging from middle school math through calculus. Previously, he was the Mathematics Coordinator for the Hebrew Academy of Nassau County (N.Y). He supervised staff, participated in textbook selection, held teacher-training workshops, and implemented new programs as required to meet or exceed state standards.

Norm is a prolific author, having written more than 20 books in his career. Most recently he has written REA’s AP Calculus AB & BC. He has also authored review books for PRAXIS II, ACT, Essential Math for the College Bound, Big 8 Mathematics, PSAT/NMSQT, Study Cards for the SAT I Math, CLEP Calculus, and SAT Subject Test: Math Levels I and II.

Norm wrote all of the quantitative test items for the two paper-and-pencil and two computer-based practice tests.

Gerri Budd, Ph.D., is a GRE rater for Educational Testing Service and a consultant for Sun Education Services. Previously, she worked as the Manager of Graduate Studies Support Services for Seton Hall University, where she created support services for grad students and managed graduate student admissions/recruitment.

Gerri shares her knowledge of the grad school application process in our appendix entitled A Quick Reference Guide to Graduate School.

ABOUT RESEARCH & EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

Founded in 1959, Research & Education Association (REA) is dedicated to publishing the finest and most effective educational materials—including software, study guides, and test preps—for students in elementary school, middle school, high school, college, graduate school, and beyond.

Today, REA’s wide-ranging catalog is a leading resource for teachers, students, and professionals.

We invite you to visit us at www.rea.com to find out how REA is making the world smarter.

REA ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to our author team, REA would like to thank Wallie Walker-Hammond, former Assessment Specialist at Educational Testing Service, for her technical review of the verbal sections; Mel Friedman, REA’s Lead Mathematics Editor, for his technical review of the math sections; Larry B. Kling, VP, Editorial, for supervising development; Pam Weston, Publisher, for setting the quality standards for production integrity and managing the publication to completion; Michael Reynolds, Managing Editor, for coordinating development of this edition; Stephanie Phelan and Maureen Mulligan for designing the book. John Paul Cording, Vice President, Technology, for coordinating the design, development, and testing of REA’s software; Heena Patel, Software Project Manager, for her software testing efforts; Bob Pearson and PearSoft, Inc., for development of REA’s online test delivery system, and Amy Jamison for ensuring the high quality of REA’s online tests; S4Carlisle for typesetting; and Weymouth Design and Christine Saul for the cover design.

In addition, special appreciation is extended to John Kupetz, Instructor of Journalism and English at the College of Lake County, Grayslake, Illinois, and former Placement Director of the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University, for putting his eagle eye to REA’s core GRE review and strategy materials.

STOP!

Before moving on, please go to

www.rea.com/gre

to take your full-length

diagnostic test.

YOUR DIAGNOSTIC TEST SCORE

Understanding Your Score

Now that you have completed the diagnostic test, we can review your score report and direct you to the most effective and efficient way to use this book.

Since August 1, 2011, the GRE score scale is 130 to 170, in increments of one. The raw score, the actual number of correct items per section, is translated into the scaled score by a scoring rubric that ETS is still working on as this is being published. REA has done its best to determine what that scoring rubric is, based on past raw to scaled score examples, but it is important to note that our scaled scores are just an approximation. As we learn more about ETS’s scoring rubric, we will update ours online and in this book.

Your final score will be based on not only the raw to scaled scores of the four verbal and math sections, but also the two essays that make up the Analytical Writing section. For the immediate future, ETS will be using human readers to grade the essays.¹ Each one of your essays will be read by two readers and they will determine your score on a scale from zero to six, in half-point increments. This score will then be added to the rubric to determine your final scaled score. For our practice tests, you will score your essay yourself, and then REA will provide the scaled score.

You will be able to score your essays by using the examples of level 5 essays we provide. Based on your confidence in the essays you have written, you can enter the score you believe you would have gotten. Again, this is not infallible, but we believe it will give you an accurate assessment of your score, had you taken the actual GRE.

Elements of the Score Report

Here are the elements of the score report we will be using to diagnose your GRE test readiness:

Raw score: this is simply the number of questions you got correct in each test section.

Scaled score: using the best information currently available, REA attempts to translate the raw score into the score you will actually see on your test results. Know that we make no claims to exactitude, as ETS officials are still working on the metrics.

Subscore by category: this is a very useful report. Here, each question is identified by type, and in the review section, we offer strategies for each type. Once you review your subscore by category, you can go to the book and study only what you need to.

Correct items per section percentage: a quick way of seeing how well you did in a certain section. Again, pointing to where you need to dedicate your energies in studying.

Elapsed time per section: how long it took you to complete a section. You may have done well, but if it took you a very long time, you may need to do some more prep.

Following is a screen grab of our score report, identifying all the information available about your test.

Practice GRE Score Report

Scores in the Application Process

It is important to remember your score is the first part of the data a school will use in assessing your application. Of course, the admissions department wants to see exactly how well you did on the GRE, and the scaled score gives them that. But the second part is the percentile rank, the context in which that score exists. This tells how well you scored in relation to all the other people that took the GRE at that time. And maybe even more importantly, it reveals how well your score compared to all the other candidates applying to the same program you are.

As the new GRE is just beginning to be administered, it will take ETS some time to build the database required (from tests taken) to determine the percentile ranks, but it seems likely that previous test results will be used as a guide.

Planning Your Preparation

Now that you’ve interpreted and fleshed out your diagnostic score report, it’s time to plan your preparation. I will give you some general principles; as I’ll continue to emphasize throughout this book, it’s up to you to apply these principles to your specific situation.

The main criteria are:

How much time you have to study before you take the official GRE. That’s not necessarily a matter of calendar-days. In fact, it’s more a matter of total hours of study time—how many hours are you prepared (or able) to set aside between now and your test date?

What your target score is. This is best defined by the average GRE score of the last-reported class of incoming first-years at the program or department into which you would most like to be admitted. However—and this is a big however—GRE scores often play a large role in graduate funding, especially, but not only, for dissertation support. If the latter is the case, especially if you’re a Ph.D. candidate, the target score is not a limiting factor.

What your diagnostic score is. This part you know already, as you’ve laid your score report on the table next to you as you read this chapter. (Right? ☺)

Let me give you an example. Let’s say Doug Tarnopol, whose diagnostic score report you’ve just seen, has about 40 hours he can set aside to prepare. Given his scores—460 in Verbal and 620 in Quantitative—he’s scoring in the middle range for both sections. (We will address his essay score later on.) In fact, he’s at the 52nd percentile rank for each section, so he has a balanced score. Let’s assume his target percentiles are 85th for each section—let’s say he’s applying to programs in quantitative history. According to the old scoring scale, he’ll need a 600 in Verbal and a 760 in Quantitative.

Since he has a lot of time and balanced scores in the mid-range, Doug should really use this entire book. He could theoretically start with whichever section he likes—Verbal, Quantitative, Essays—after having read the introductory sections, but he might as well go in order. His scheduling task is pretty simple: split up the time evenly between Verbal and Quantitative, giving less attention to the Essays, which are scored separately from the other two sections, and on a six-point scale. They are also quite amenable to improvement, regardless of writing ability, as you’ll see later on.

Let’s take another example. Let’s say a test-taker named Jane Doe has a Quantitative score of 700 and a Verbal score of 500. Assume Jane is going to be an engineer. She needs to get the highest Quantitative score possible, which is an 800 (soon to be a 170). As of the time of this writing a perfect score in Quantitative is actually only a 94th percentile rank, which tells you how many people cluster up in the perfect score range. No one at her engineering schools, let’s assume for our current purposes, cares what she gets in Verbal as long as she’s at or above 500, or, around a 60th-65th percentile rank, and they’re not even going to look at her essay.

Jane’s course is clear. Ignore everything in this book except the math section.

So, enough with the hypotheticals! Let’s figure out what you, who are presumably non-hypothetical, need to do:

How many hours are you willing and able to put into this?

Remember, as if you need reminding, that such notions as diminishing returns and opportunity costs are really real! Don’t overdo your preparation, especially for relatively paltry potential benefits; remember you have other things, like grades or full-time work, perhaps, and definitely statements of purpose, to resource.

Work out your estimate in the following space.

What is your target score?

How’d you do on your diagnostic test?

We must now deal with the essay score—if and only if you know it matters. If it doesn’t matter to any program to which you’re planning to apply, don’t waste any time on this. If you can’t rule out the essay matter, turn to the sample essay included with the online diagnostic test and do a quick-and-dirty self-score. Don’t get too worked up about it; it’ll be pretty clear whether you’re in the lower range (i.e., 0-3) or the upper range (i.e., 4-6).

Put it all together now, and scope out your time to whatever degree of specificity you deem valuable. If you’re mapping out your time down to the half-hour, of course, I’d say ease up a tad. If you’re totally winging it, I’d say buckle down and sketch out some reasonable schedule.

Keep in mind that both your progress as you study and the general vagaries of life will probably end up altering your current plan a bit, but that’s only to be expected. At least you’ll exert some control over the future, and that reduction in anxiety alone is worth the effort!

CHAPTER 1

About the GRE

WHO TAKES THE GRE? Two different populations take the GRE: those individuals applying to graduate school and those applying to business school.

As with the SAT and ACT tests, the GRE requires you to master four main testing parameters: content, structure, timing, and scoring.

CONTENT

The GRE test has three main sections: Verbal, Quantitative, and Analytical Writing (a.k.a., essays).

The Verbal section tests your reading skills and indirectly your vocabulary. It also tests your grasp of sentence structure as well as logic as it applies to sentence structure. This is common-sense logic, not esoteric symbolic logic.

The Quantitative section tests your knowledge of junior-high-school math and a bit of basic data analysis. You once knew this material, which is not difficult compared with, say, calculus or even trigonometry. With that in mind, this section should not be a problem. However, if you’re not a math person, it’s possible you’ve avoided this topic since you took the SAT or ACT. If that’s the case, don’t worry. We’ll help you review.

The Analytical Writing section includes two essays: an analysis of an issue and an analysis of an argument. These essays are more concerned with the structure and organization of an argument than the artfulness of written expression, as you’ll see later in detail. The issue essay prompts you to build an effective argument and the argument essay prompts you to analyze someone else’s less effective argument. They are mirror images of each other and will be covered later in more detail.

STRUCTURE AND TIMING

The computer-based GRE, which most readers will take, has the structure shown in the table on the next page.

Don’t worry about which section(s), if any, is the unscored or research section; just treat each section the same. Also, don’t freak out if you have a few more or a few less than 20 questions in a section. There may be some variability.

You get 3 hours and 45 minutes to take the test. It’s a lengthy test. Several breaks should help: a 10-minute break after the third section, and 1-minute breaks between the other sections. You’ll have plenty of opportunities to take full-length practice tests: These will help you prepare for a major requirement of the GRE test: the ability to sit still and concentrate. The Germans call this ability sitzfleisch (ZITS-fl[eye]sh). You might call it chair glue.

Format of the GRE revised General Test

You will probably take this test on a computer, and we’ll explore the interface, which you’ve already seen. Our hope is you’re reading this after taking your diagnostic full-length test. Thus, you’ll need to use scratch paper, which will be provided at the test center.

Besides the interface, the paper-based test differs from the computer-based test in a few ways. The paper-based testing time is 3 hours and 30 minutes, has approximately 25 questions in each Verbal and Quantitative reasoning sections, and allows 5 more minutes to complete each of those sections.

From this point, do not write anything in this book unless you’re specifically told to do so! You need to get used to practicing on scratch paper from the start.

We’ll also explore the anatomy of each item type in the relevant sections as we encounter them. For now, let’s agree on some terms.

Item is how we’ll refer to what normal people call questions. Not every item is framed like a question, and this term thus avoids confusion.

We’ll refer to normal multiple-choice items—in which you choose the one correct answer from several options as multiple-choice items. These multiple-choice items are indicated by ovals on-screen, as you saw.

We’ll refer to the less-familiar multiple-choice items—in which you choose more than one (but not always more than one!) answer from several options—as multiple-response items. Multiple-response items, by this definition, are indicated by boxes on-screen, as you saw.

When you have to fill in an answer, we’ll call that a... wait for it... fill-in.

The word-selection items in the Verbal section, which we will discuss later, will not be distinguished from multiple-choice items because it doesn’t matter from your perspective whether you click on an oval or on the word itself.

We’ll refer to another type of item from the Verbal section, in which you highlight a sentence or other bit of text in a passage, as highlighters. We’ll refer to items that ask about a highlighted word or sentence as either multiple-choice or multiple-response items. That function is identical to line numbering in the SAT or ACT paper-based testing. Again, this doesn’t change a thing from the test-taker’s perspective.

Any passage with associated items or a math figure or data set with multiple associated items will be called a testlet. The term testlet is useful because it describes what these sets are: mini-tests within the big test. Besides, testlet is a term from psychometrics and you can use it to impress your friends and prospective employers.

We’ll introduce a few section-specific terms of art later. Since psychologists state seven items is the maximum one can retain at once in short-term memory, that’s enough for now.

This test includes both an online calculator and the ability to go back and forth within a section, using a review screen to reorient yourself. Go to our online practice-test center and ETS’s PowerPrep online practice any time before your actual test to remove any unfamiliarity with how it works.

There’s been much hoopla over the GRE’s section-level adaptivity. The bottom line for you, the test-taker, is it’s not relevant. Based on extensive research and discussions with multiple psychometricians, we’ve determined that how you do on Section 1 of either the Verbal or Quantitative section determines your rough, or fuzzy score. That performance triggers the construction of Section 2, which tightens the focus on your score. Again, the upshot is that you should do what you’d normally do—the best you can with the time you’re given. That’s that.

SCORING

The GRE is scored as follows:

Verbal and Quantitative raw scores (i.e., the number correct per section) are converted to a scaled score. The scale, which used to be 200-800 in 10-point increments, is now 130-170 in 1-point increments.

Keep two important points in mind. First, there is no penalty for answering incorrectly. Global strategy, No. 1, thus is to answer everything. Guessing can only help you. I’ll provide some more global strategies in the next section.

Second, you may have noticed that we’ve