Sailing Fundamentals

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CONTENTS

United States Coast Guard Auxiliary

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

PART ONE

INTRODUCTION TO SAILING

Overview: The Sailboat and the Wind

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

All About Boats

The Basic Boat

Responsibilities of the Skipper and Crew

Alcohol and Drug Abuse

Federal Requirements for Recreational Boats

Review Questions

SAILING SKILLS

Boarding

Sailing Checklist

Attaching the Sails

Rigging Checklist

Using Winches

Raising the Mainsail

Getting the Boat Moving

Getting Out of Irons

Coming About or Tacking (Mainsail Only)

Jibing (Mainsail Only)

Raising the Jib

Reaching with Mainsail and Jib

Coming About with Mainsail and Jib

Sailing a Figure Eight

Jibing with Mainsail and Jib

Ending the Sail

Stowing Sails

Docking

Summary

PART TWO

BASIC SAILING

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

Sail Trim

What Makes a Boat Sail

Points of Sail

Rules of the Road under Sail

Review Questions

SAILING SKILLS

Communications

Sailing Close-hauled

Sailing on a Run

Sailing on a Reach

Stopping the Boat

Summary

PART THREE

SAFETY AND SEAMANSHIP

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

The Safety Harness

Deck Safety

Hypothermia and Clothing

Seasickness

Review Questions

SAILING SKILLS

Sailing a Triangular Course

Rescuing a Man Overboard

Sailing in Confined Waters

Summary

PART FOUR

BASIC SEAMANSHIP SKILLS

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

Daysail Planning

Chart Symbols

Aids to Navigation

Anchors and Their Uses

The Anchorage

Knots

Dock Lines and Their Uses

Review Questions

SAILING SKILLS

Anchoring

Heaving To

Docking under Sail

Mooring

Summary

PART FIVE

BASIC COASTAL CRUISING

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

Terms and Definitions

Running Lights

Duties of Skipper and Crew for Cruising

Rules of the Road under Power

Essential Safety Equipment

Review Questions

SAILING SKILLS

Engine Operation-Outboards

Troubleshooting the Engine

Handling a Vessel under Power

Summary

PART SIX

BASIC COASTAL CRUISING II

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

Sail Selection

Weather

Heavy-Weather Sailing

Reefing Systems

The Magnetic Compass

Preparing for Coastal Cruising

Running Aground and Other Nuisances

Review Questions

SAILING SKILLS

Reefing

Sailing a Compass Course

Steering with the Sails

Basic Coastal Cruising Checklist

Summary

PART SEVEN

SPECIAL SAILING INFORMATION

Special Sailing Information

Dinghy Sailing

Sailboards

Catamarans

Launching, Storing, and Maintaining Your Boat

A Final Word

APPENDIX A

Answers to Review Questions

APPENDIX B

Float Plan

APPENDIX C

Accident Report Form

GLOSSARY

INDEX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD AUXILIARY

Sailing Fundamentals is also the official sailing textbook of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary (USCGAUX). The USCGAUX is the volunteer civilian component of the United States Coast Guard (USCG). It consists of approximately 35,000 members who wish to further their boating education and who provide administrative, operational, and other support to the USCG.

Safe boating education is one of the major missions of the USCGAUX. USCGAUX courses include both classroom and distance-learning (home-study) classes. The USCGAUX does not offer on-the water courses to the general public, although such training is made available to members who wish to engage in search and rescue (SAR), aids to navigation (ATON), and other operational activities that require boat-crew qualification.

The USCGAUX public education program includes special courses for children and the Boating Safely Course (BSC), an eight-hour course for powerboaters, operators of personal watercraft (PWC), hunters and fishermen, and others interested in boating safety. The Skipper’s Safe Boating course is a distance-learning course for those whose schedules do not permit classroom attendance. The core program includes the Boating Skills and Seamanship (BS&S) course for powerboaters and the Sailing Fundamentals course for sailors. Boaters with an interest in coastal navigation may take the USCGAUX Basic Coastal Navigation (BCN) and Advanced Coastal Navigation (ACN) courses. Members of the USCGAUX are eligible to take advanced training in a variety of topics, including communications, seamanship, SAR, and navigation, and courses on related topics offered through the USCG Institute.

The Skipper’s Safe Boating Course, BSC, BS&S, and Sailing Fundamentals courses are approved by the National Association of State Boating Law Administrators (NASBLA) and graduates may satisfy state requirements for certification in those states that have mandatory education requirements. (Check with your state Boating Law Administrator [BLA] to see if this course is approved in your state.) Additionally, students who graduate from the S&S course also pass the classroom portion of the ASA Basic Keelboat Sailing Standard.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Each of the first six parts of this book is divided into two sections, Sailing Knowledge and Sailing Skills.

Sailing Knowledge covers terminology, sailing theory, safety, and government regulations-all the things you need to know before going out on the water. To reinforce what you have learned, you will find review questions at the end of each Sailing Knowledge section. Answers are provided in Appendix A.

The Sailing Knowledge sections are covered in detail in the USCGAUX Sailing Fundamentals course. Questions in the written final Sailing Fundamentals examination cover material from the Sailing Knowledge section of each chapter. USCGAUX students are not tested on topics covered only in the Sailing Skills sections (see below), but are encouraged to read this material as a course supplement and in preparation for later on-the-water training offered by ASA schools.

Although this is principally a text about sailing, some of the topics covered in the Sailing Knowledge sections of this book apply to powerboats. This material is included to give the reader additional background and to satisfy the boating-safety education standards set by NASBLA and the USCG. If your vessel has an engine (as many sailboats do) and the engine is in operation-regardless of whether or not the sails are raised-you are considered to be operating a powerboat under the navigation rules and must comply with all regulations applicable to these craft. Moreover, engine equipped vessels must satisfy other federal and state regulations, such as carriage of additional required safety equipment.

The Sailing Skills sections describe exercises and maneuvers designed to teach boat handling. Although the basic principles of sailing are the same for all craft from sailboards to 12-meter yachts, the exercises in this book are designed for a boat of about 14 to 30 feet with at least two people aboard. In practicing each maneuver, switch roles with your fellow crew members so that everyone learns every skill.

Each exercise teaches a particular task. Many of the skills will build upon lessons learned in previous exercises. Each Sailing Skills section is designed to take two to three hours to complete on the water. The ideal way to learn is with the hands-on knowledge imparted by a qualified instructor or experienced sailor. The sequence of exercises in this book allows for a knowledgeable sailor on board with you, although the book itself can be your instructor.

Certain fundamental maneuvers-such as leaving the dock under sail-have purposely been left to later parts. By that point, your skills will have been developed sufficiently for you to attempt these more complicated maneuvers. We deal only with sailboats in Parts One through Four; we will cover handling a vessel under power in Part Five.

Important terms are explained in the text as well as defined in the Glossary beginning on p. 205. Illustrations or photographs give a more detailed explanation of terms when necessary. Each subject area is explored in increasing depth in subsequent parts as you gain knowledge and develop basic skills.

Good luck and smooth sailing.

PART ONE

Introduction to Sailing

OVERVIEW: THE SAILBOAT AND THE WIND

To illustrate the way the wind interacts with the sails, let me tell you a story.

In my early days of sailing I was once sailing a little ten-foot boat on Toms River, a body of water off Barnegat Bay along the coast of New Jersey. It was a particularly difficult day to be out on the water. Not only was the wind strong, but it was frequently shifting direction. Every time I got settled down on a desirable course, with the sails set at a correct angle to the wind and the boat moving fast, the wind would shift. I often had to make an unscheduled, drastic change in course to keep the sails filled with wind. Sometimes I did not move fast enough, and my boat was left lying stopped in the river with her sails flapping helplessly.

An older friend, named Tom Chapman, was watching from the nearby shore. At the time, Tom was one of the top sailors on Barnegat Bay, but he understood my frustration. Instead of watching in amusement as some people might do, he coached me back to shore, hopped into the boat with me, and gave me some good advice.

First, he said, you must understand where the wind is coming from. Your problem is that you aren’t aware of any changes in direction. Here’s what I do, he continued. Before I head out, I stand on the shore and simply look at wind indicators. I look at flags on shore and on boats. I study the direction that water ripples blow in, and I watch other boats that are out sailing. This helps me understand how the wind is shifting in direction and strength so I’m not surprised once I push out.

The next thing I do is plan in advance where I want to sail. Say I want to sail from here to that island. He pointed into the wind. "Obviously, I can’t sail straight to it because that would mean sailing directly into the wind, and this boat can’t sail closer to the wind than about 45 degrees. So I’ll sail a series of short legs on a course of 45 degrees to the wind, first with the wind on one side and then with the wind on the other, and so on back and forth until I get to my destination. To get started, I push off, pick the first course, get sailing at 45 degrees to the wind, and adjust the sail so it catches the wind just right, without flapping. When a boat is sailing that close to the wind, the sail should be pulled in quite far, until it is right over the boat.

Now, suppose that I’d decided to sail to that marina down there. He pointed directly downwind. Then I’d be sailing with the wind behind me. That means that the sail should be adjusted so it is way out over the water at about a right angle to the boat. As you can see, the way I adjust the sail depends entirely on the course I choose.

Tom and I pushed off and sailed out into the river. I decided to sail toward the island upwind, so I headed about 45 degrees to the wind and pulled the sail in close. Tom resumed coaching. I watch what the wind is doing to my sail, he said, and adjust the course so I stay at that 45-degree angle. If the sail begins to flap, I’m probably sailing too close to the wind. I should change my course to get back to that 45-degree angle. On the other hand, if I let the sail out a little and it does not flap, that means I’m sailing too wide and should alter my course until I’m sailing closer to the wind.

But don’t look only at the sail. I spend about half my time watching the water beyond the bow of my boat so I can try to understand what the wind will do. I try to remember what I observed while I was on shore, but I also learn through experience. For example, if the wind shifts 20 degrees to the left side, it will ripple the water at a new angle. Whenever I see that kind of ripple on the water, he said, pointing and adjusting our course, I anticipate another wind shift to the left.

When you’re sailing in a shifty wind, at first you’ll be making big swoops between sailing either too close to the wind or too wide off it, Tom warned. But with experience and practice you will be able to steer a straighter course, and you won’t find your boat sailing quite as high or quite as low.

On the way back to shore, Tom had one last bit of advice. In shifty winds, it’s important to be able to make rapid adjustments to the sail. So keep the sheet (the rope leading to the sail) in your hand so you can adjust it whenever the wind changes direction.

That afternoon, in less than an hour, Tom’s lessons set me on the right course. I was learning how to sail.

In this first lesson, the parts of the boat and the two most frequently used knots are introduced. Knots are an essential part of a sailor’s knowledge and should be attempted before the first lesson. Upon completion of this part you will be able to raise the sails, come about, jibe, and leave the boat in shipshape fashion after a sail.

SAILING KNOWLEDGE

ALL ABOUT BOATS • 15

THE BASIC BOAT • 17

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SKIPPER AND CREW • 24

ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE • 25

FEDERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR RECREATIONAL BOATS • 27

REVIEW QUESTIONS • 33

ALL ABOUT BOATS

PROPULSION TYPES

Recreational boats are designed to use one or more of three propulsion types. Self-propelled vessels, including kayaks, rowboats, rafts, and canoes, are designed to be propelled by people using paddles, oars, or poles. Power-driven vessels (powerboats) typically use gasoline or diesel motors for propulsion. Sailing vessels (sailboats) are wind powered, using sails to capture the wind’s power (see below).

POWERBOAT—a recreational boat typically powered by a gasoline or diesel engine. Powerboats may be subdivided into several types, including utility boats (prams, skiffs, dinghies, inflatables, and utility outboards), runabouts (bowriders, open fishermen, center consoles), cruisers (trawlers, houseboats, larger sportfishing vessels), pontoon boats, and personal watercraft (PWC). Each type has certain uses, characteristics, and limitations. Utility boats, for example, are used as tenders for larger craft and as platforms for fishing and hunting in protected waters. Because utility boats are generally small with limited stability, boaters should enter them carefully to avoid overloading. Caution should also be exercised when moving within these boats to avoid tipping them over. Runabouts are generally fast, maneuverable craft, used for fishing, hunting, cruising, and waterskiing. Cruisers are generally larger, more seaworthy (except for houseboats) craft, equipped with berths (sleeping areas), a head (marine toilet), galley (marine kitchen), and other facilities necessary for living aboard. Powerboats are subject to particular navigation rules and have specific responsibilities under those rules.

PERSONAL WATERCRAFT—also called water scooters as well as a variety of trade names. They are highly maneuverable, fast, fun-to-operate, low-cost, power-driven (jet drive) craft capable of operation in very shallow water. Many PWC are designed for one person, but larger models are available for use by two or three people. PWC are not toys and are governed by navigation rules applicable to power-driven vessels. In addition, most states and many localities have established specific laws that regulate PWC activities, such as prohibition of night operations, speed limitations, prohibitions of specific activities (e.g., wake jumping), limitations on operator age, and education requirements. These popular craft have unique operating capabilities (e.g., high speed, shallow draft), but are also subject to limitations. For example, PWC are steered by altering (via handlebars) the direction of the jet drive, and if power is not applied, steering is lost (the so-called off-throttle steering problem). Operators who are unfamiliar with this design feature may have difficulty controlling the vessel. PWC are designed for operation in relatively calm waters, have limited fuel capacity, and are not stable or very maneuverable at slow speeds.

PWC operators often focus their attention on nearby waves or wakes, which can impair their ability to maintain a proper lookout. Operators of other vessels should exercise caution when operating in the vicinity of PWC to minimize the likelihood of collision.

Persons using PWC can expect to be thrown into the water and should wear personal flotation devices (PFDs) suitable for PWC use. The ability to swim and knowing how to reboard a PWC from the water are also essential. Many PWC are equipped with engine kill switches rigged to shut the engine off if the riders are thrown from the craft. Fuel management is very important for PWC. Not all PWC are equipped with fuel gauges. Instead, they have reserve tanks and riders need to know how to switch to the reserve tanks and must know the PWC’s endurance when using the reserve tanks. Weight and balance are important for PWC operators. Thorough familiarity with owners’ manuals and strict adherence to the published limitations are essential. Finally, it is important that operators of PWC (as well as other craft) display environmental sensitivity. Operations in shallow water areas may disturb a fragile ecosystem and its inhabitants.

***PWC operators must observe restrictions on loud noise in populated areas. This can be both a matter of courtesy and regulation.***

SAILING VESSEL—as noted above, this is a wind-powered vessel that uses only sails for power. Many sailboats are also equipped with gas or diesel motors for use (either as primary or supplemental power) when winds are light or from the wrong direction, for docking or other precise maneuvering, and for operation in waters (e.g., certain canals) where use of sails is prohibited. A sailboat is a power-driven vessel, as defined in the navigation rules, when the motor is in operation, and must observe regulations applicable to this type of vessel. When powered solely by sail, a sailboat is termed a sailing vessel and is subject to other specific regulations and (because of its limited maneuverability) enjoys certain privileges under the navigation rules. Various types of sailboat are discussed later in this text.

Most large powerboats like this one do not have the ability to plane.

SAILBOARD—a modified surfboard with a mast attached that holds a sail and is capable of swiveling. They are one-person craft, so the skipper operates the sail, steers, and acts as lookout. Visibility on these high-speed craft may be limited when the operator is positioned behind the sail. Skippers of other craft should understand this limitation and exercise caution when operating in the vicinity of sailboards.

HULL

The hull is the basic boat minus the rigging. The hull comprises the bottom, topsides, buoyancy tanks, and deck. One way to classify boats is based on hull design. Displacement-hull boats move through the water and push it aside or displace it. Planing-hull vessels move faster and, after gaining speed, ride more nearly on top of the water. All boats at rest or moving slowly are displacement boats. Each displaces a volume of water equal in weight to its own weight when operating in displacement mode.

A displacement-hull vessel always displaces a volume of water equal to its own weight, regardless of its speed. At slow speeds, it is easy for a displacement-hull boat to push the water aside, forming a bow wave. As speed increases, the bow wave becomes higher and the boat tries to climb it. But the boat is not designed to do this so there is a practical limit to its speed. Displacement vessels with longer waterlines have the capability of attaining higher speeds as long as they have adequate power. Most sailboats (except sailboards and certain other light-weight boats such as racing dinghies), tugs, freighters, and true trawlers are displacement-hull vessels. The theoretical upper limit (the hull speed) of a displacement hull can be calculated with relative precision. Hull speed in knots (nautical miles per hour) is approximately 1.34 times the square root of the waterline length in feet. Thus, a displacement-hull vessel with a waterline length of 36 feet has a maximum speed of approximately 8 knots (9.2 statute miles per hour). Despite their slow speed, displacement-hull vessels have many advantages and special uses. They are steady and comfortable and can handle rougher water than their planing hull cousins (see below). Engine-powered displacement-hull vessels are typically fuel efficient.

Above hull-speed a planing-hull vessel rides on its bow wave or on-plane. When planing, it uses most of its power to move forward instead of pushing the water aside and displaces a volume of water less than its own weight. Generally, flatter hull bottoms allow boats to plane more easily. Runabouts, speedboats, sportfishing boats, and PWC are examples of planing-hull vessels. Power-driven planing-hull vessels are generally less fuel efficient than displacement-hull vessels of comparable size and weight.

As the name implies, a semidisplacement hull has both displacement and planing characteristics. Up to a certain power and speed, a semidisplacement hull behaves as a displacement hull. Beyond that point, the hull can rise to a partial plane. Increasing the power of a semidisplacement hull vessel increases its speed. It never gets fully on top, however, and is not as fast as a vessel with a true planing hull. Most trawlers and many cruisers fit into this category.

Multihull vessels include sailing catamarans (two hulls) and trimarans (three hulls). Although technically a displacementhull vessel, a multihull is able to escape the restriction of hull speed because the narrow hulls create very little wave resistance and because this type of vessel typically carries a great deal of sail. These boats may be difficult to maneuver at docking speeds because they lack the momentum that heavier, ballasted boats use to maintain forward motion.

There is no single, all-purpose, perfect hull design. Boat builders strive to find a happy compromise among conflicting design objectives.

THE BASIC BOAT

Learning to sail is rather like going to a foreign country. Everyone seems to speak a different language. But don’t let this trouble you, for the language will soon become familiar. Once you cast off from shore, your boat becomes a self-contained world. To function within that world you need to learn the parts of your boat and their uses. Go over them often so there is no question in your mind.

KEEL—a weighted fin that, when attached to the bottom of a sailboat, keeps the boat from capsizing or slipping sideways in the water, which allows it to sail upwind.

CENTERBOARD—A sailboat without a keel may have a centerboard. A centerboard is a wooden or metal fin housed in a centerboard trunk. It can be lowered