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    Joel, Obadiah, Malachi
    Joel, Obadiah, Malachi
    Joel, Obadiah, Malachi
    Ebook791 pages8 hours

    Joel, Obadiah, Malachi

    By David W. Baker

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    • Judgment

    • Prophecy

    • Covenant

    • Day of the Lord

    • Restoration

    • Divine Intervention

    • Divine Judgment

    • Natural Disaster

    • Prophetic Warning

    • Mentor

    • Chosen One

    • Revenge

    • Spiritual Growth

    • Divine Revelation

    • Fall

    • Biblical Studies

    • Blessings & Curses

    • Locust Invasion

    • Repentance

    • Priestly Responsibilities

    About this ebook

    These three short prophetic books of the Old Testament each contain a dual message. On one hand are messages of impending judgment—for all peoples on the Day of the Lord, for an enemy of Israel, and for Israel herself. On the other hand are messages of great hope—of the pouring out of God’s Spirit, of restoration and renewal, and of a coming Messiah. Placing judgment and hope together in such a manner may seem paradoxical to a contemporary mindset. But the complete message of these prophets gives a fuller picture of God—who despises and rightly judges sin and rebellion, but who also lovingly invites people to return to him so that he might bestow his wonderful grace and blessings. It is a message no less timely today than when these books were first written, and David W. Baker skillfully bridges the centuries in helping believers today understand and apply it. Most Bible commentaries take us on a one-way trip from our world to the world of the Bible. But they leave us there, assuming that we can somehow make the return journey on our own. They focus on the original meaning of the passage but don’t discuss its contemporary application. The information they offer is valuable—but the job is only half done! The NIV Application Commentary Series helps bring both halves of the interpretive task together. This unique, award-winning series shows readers how to bring an ancient message into our postmodern context. It explains not only what the Bible meant but also how it speaks powerfully today.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherZondervan
    Release dateMay 26, 2009
    ISBN9780310571711
    Joel, Obadiah, Malachi
    Author

    David W. Baker

    Baker (A.B., M.C.S., M.Phil., Ph.D.) is professor of Old Testament and Semitic languages at Ashland Theological Seminary in Ashland, Ohio. He serves as editor for the Evangelical Theological Society Dissertation and Evangelical Theological Society Studies series as well as for Sources for Biblical and Theological Studies (Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake). He is coauthor (with Bill T. Arnold) of The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches. In addition, he has written many articles, essays and commentaries.

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      Book preview

      Joel, Obadiah, Malachi - David W. Baker

      JOEL, OBADIAH, MALACHI

      THE NIV APPLICATION COMMENTARY

      From biblical text … to contemporary life

      DAVID W. BAKER

      ZONDERVAN

      The NIV Application Commentary: Joel, Obadiah, Malachi

      Copyright © 2006 by David W. Baker

      Requests for information should be addressed to:

      Zondervan, 3900 Sparks Dr. SE, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Baker, David W.

      Joel, Obadiah, Malachi / David W. Baker.

      p. cm.—(NIV application commentary)

      Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

      ePub edition November 2014: ISBN 978-0-310-57171-1

      ISBN-10: 0-310-20637-5

      ISBN-13: 978-0-310-20637-8

      1. Bible. O.T. Joel—Commentaries. 2. Bible. O.T. Obadiah—Commentaries. 1. Bible. O.T. Malachi—Commentaries. I. Title. II. Series.

      BS1575.53.B35 2005

      294’.707—dc22

      2005019363

      All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

      The website addresses recommended throughout this book are offered as a resource to you. These websites are not intended in any way to be or imply an endorsement on the part of Zondervan, nor do we vouch for their content for the life of this book.

      All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without prior permission of the publisher.

      Contents

      How to Use This Commentary

      Series Introduction

      General Editor’s Preface

      Author’s Preface

      Abbreviations

      Introduction to Joel

      Outline of Joel

      Select Bibliography on Joel

      Text and Commentary on Joel

      Joel 1:1–20

      Joel 2:1–11

      Joel 2:12–17

      Joel 2:18–32

      Joel 3[4]:1–12

      Joel 3[4]:13–21

      Introduction to Obadiah

      Outline of Obadiah

      Select Bibliography on Obadiah

      Text and Commentary on Obadiah

      Obadiah 1–4

      Obadiah 5–7

      Obadiah 8–9

      Obadiah 10–15

      Obadiah 16–18

      Obadiah 19–21

      Introduction to Malachi

      Outline of Malachi

      Select Bibliography on Malachi

      Text and Commentary on Malachi

      Malachi 1:1

      Malachi 1:2–5

      Malachi 1:6–14

      Malachi 2:1–9

      Malachi 2:10–16

      Malachi 2:17–3:5

      Malachi 3:6–12

      Malachi 3:13–4:6

      Scripture Index

      Subject Index

      Notes

      How to Use This Commentary

      Thank you for purchasing the HarperCollins Christian Publishing eBook version of The NIV Application Commentary.

      What is the difference between an eBook and a print book?

      eBook versions contain all of the content and supplementary materials found in the original print versions and are optimized for navigation in the various apps and devices used for display. eReaders recognize text as one fluid string and are formatted in a single column. eReaders currently do not support the more complex layout seen in print version books. Therefore, some content may not appear in the same place as in the original print version, but it is structured consistently and uses hyperlinks to navigate between related content.

      How do I use the eBook Table of Contents?

      *Important Note: Be sure to consult your device manufacturer’s User’s Guide for device-specific navigation instructions.*

      The Table of Contents is the primary navigation anchor to quickly access various parts of the eBook. It is generally formatted in the same order as the original print version and is hyperlinked as follows:

      • Introductory Materials

      • Commentary

      • Indexes

      Selecting an entry in the Table of Contents takes you to that location in the eBook. Selecting the title of that specific entry or using your device’s Back button or function takes you back to the main Table of Contents.

      How do I navigate the content?

      The eBook version of The NIV Application Commentary includes introductory materials, commentary, footnotes, scripture index, and subject index. Hyperlinks to the materials appear in the Table of Contents as well as the main book text.

      Introductory materials are hyperlinked directly to the content-specific location in the main text.

      • Select the hyperlinked entry in the article or list to go to its location in the main text.

      • Select the hyperlinked entry in the main text to go back to the article or list in the Table of Contents or use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

      Footnotes in the Commentary are marked with small, hyperlinked numbers ¹ to access comments and citations.

      • Select the hyperlinked number in the main text to the corresponding footnote.

      • Select the hyperlinked number to the left of the footnote to go back to the main text or use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

      Scripture Index includes hyperlinks directly to the Bible Verse citations in the main text.

      • Select the Scripture Index from the Table of Contents.

      • Select the hyperlinked page number 1 to go directly to the citation in the main text.

      • Use the device’s Next Page/Previous Page button or function to scroll through the pages.

      • Use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection

      Subject and Author Indexes are hyperlinked directly to the content-specific location in the main text.

      • Select an Index from the Table of Contents.

      • Select the hyperlinked letter of the alphabet A to go to a corresponding list of entries.

      • Use the device’s Next Page/Previous Page button or function to scroll through the entries.

      • Select the hyperlinked page number 1 to go to the main text.

      • Select the footnote entry marked with n1 to the corresponding footnote.

      • Use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

      NOTES:

      • The Bible Translation quoted by the authors in the main Commentary, unless otherwise indicated, is taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.

      NIV Application Commentary

      Series Introduction

      THE NIV APPLICATION COMMENTARY SERIES is unique. Most commentaries help us make the journey from the twentieth century back to the first century. They enable us to cross the barriers of time, culture, language, and geography that separate us from the biblical world. Yet they only offer a one-way ticket to the past and assume that we can somehow make the return journey on our own. Once they have explained the original meaning of a book or passage, these commentaries give us little or no help in exploring its contemporary significance. The information they offer is valuable, but the job is only half done.

      Recently, a few commentaries have included some contemporary application as one of their goals. Yet that application is often sketchy or moralistic, and some volumes sound more like printed sermons than commentaries.

      The primary goal of The NIV Application Commentary Series is to help you with the difficult but vital task of bringing an ancient message into a modern context. The series not only focuses on application as a finished product but also helps you think through the process of moving from the original meaning of a passage to its contemporary significance. These are commentaries, not popular expositions. They are works of reference, not devotional literature.

      The format of the series is designed to achieve the goals of the series. Each passage is treated in three sections: Original Meaning, Bridging Contexts, and Contemporary Significance.

      Original Meaning

      THIS SECTION HELPS you understand the meaning of the biblical text in its first-century context. All of the elements of traditional exegesis—in concise form—are discussed here. These include the historical, literary, and cultural context of the passage. The authors discuss matters related to grammar and syntax, and the meaning of biblical words.¹ They also seek to explore the main ideas of the passage and how the biblical author develops those ideas.

      After reading this section, you will understand the problems, questions, and concerns of the original audience and how the biblical author addressed those issues. This understanding is foundational to any legitimate application of the text today.

      Bridging Contexts

      THIS SECTION BUILDS a bridge between the world of the Bible and the world of today, between the original context and the contemporary context, by focusing on both the timely and timeless aspects of the text.

      God’s Word is timely. The authors of Scripture spoke to specific situations, problems, and questions. The author of Joshua encouraged the faith of his original readers by narrating the destruction of Jericho, a seemingly impregnable city, at the hands of an angry warrior God (Josh. 6). Paul warned the Galatians about the consequences of circumcision and the dangers of trying to be justified by law (Gal. 5:2–5). The author of Hebrews tried to convince his readers that Christ is superior to Moses, the Aaronic priests, and the Old Testament sacrifices. John urged his readers to test the spirits of those who taught a form of incipient Gnosticism (1 John 4:1–6). In each of these cases, the timely nature of Scripture enables us to hear God’s Word in situations that were concrete rather than abstract.

      Yet the timely nature of Scripture also creates problems. Our situations, difficulties, and questions are not always directly related to those faced by the people in the Bible. Therefore, God’s word to them does not always seem relevant to us. For example, when was the last time someone urged you to be circumcised, claiming that it was a necessary part of justification? How many people today care whether Christ is superior to the Aaronic priests? And how can a test designed to expose incipient Gnosticism be of any value in a modern culture?

      Fortunately, Scripture is not only timely but timeless. Just as God spoke to the original audience, so he still speaks to us through the pages of Scripture. Because we share a common humanity with the people of the Bible, we discover a universal dimension in the problems they faced and the solutions God gave them. The timeless nature of Scripture enables it to speak with power in every time and in every culture.

      Those who fail to recognize that Scripture is both timely and timeless run into a host of problems. For example, those who are intimidated by timely books such as Hebrews, Galatians, or Deuteronomy might avoid reading them because they seem meaningless today. At the other extreme, those who are convinced of the timeless nature of Scripture, but who fail to discern its timely element, may wax eloquent about the Melchizedekian priesthood to a sleeping congregation, or worse still, try to apply the holy wars of the Old Testament in a physical way to God’s enemies today.

      The purpose of this section, therefore, is to help you discern what is timeless in the timely pages of the Bible—and what is not. For example, how do the holy wars of the Old Testament relate to the spiritual warfare of the New? If Paul’s primary concern is not circumcision (as he tells us in Gal. 5:6), what is he concerned about? If discussions about the Aaronic priesthood or Melchizedek seem irrelevant today, what is of abiding value in these passages? If people try to test the spirits today with a test designed for a specific first-century heresy, what other biblical test might be more appropriate?

      Yet this section does not merely uncover that which is timeless in a passage but also helps you to see how it is uncovered. The author of the commentary seeks to take what is implicit in the text and make it explicit, to take a process that normally is intuitive and explain it in a logical, orderly fashion. How do we know that circumcision is not Paul’s primary concern? What clues in the text or its context help us realize that Paul’s real concern is at a deeper level?

      Of course, those passages in which the historical distance between us and the original readers is greatest require a longer treatment. Conversely, those passages in which the historical distance is smaller or seemingly nonexistent require less attention.

      One final clarification. Because this section prepares the way for discussing the contemporary significance of the passage, there is not always a sharp distinction or a clear break between this section and the one that follows. Yet when both sections are read together, you should have a strong sense of moving from the world of the Bible to the world of today.

      Contemporary Significance

      THIS SECTION ALLOWS the biblical message to speak with as much power today as it did when it was first written. How can you apply what you learned about Jerusalem, Ephesus, or Corinth to our present-day needs in Chicago, Los Angeles, or London? How can you take a message originally spoken in Greek and Aramaic and communicate it clearly in our own language? How can you take the eternal truths originally spoken in a different time and culture and apply them to the similar-yet-different needs of our culture?

      In order to achieve these goals, this section gives you help in several key areas.

      (1) it helps you identify contemporary situations, problems, or questions that are truly comparable to those faced by the original audience. Because contemporary situations are seldom identical to those faced in the first century, you must seek situations that are analogous if your applications are to be relevant.

      (2) this section explores a variety of contexts in which the passage might be applied today. You will look at personal applications, but you will also be encouraged to think beyond private concerns to the society and culture at large.

      (3) this section will alert you to any problems or difficulties you might encounter in seeking to apply the passage. And if there are several legitimate ways to apply a passage (areas in which Christians disagree), the author will bring these to your attention and help you think through the issues involved.

      In seeking to achieve these goals, the contributors to this series attempt to avoid two extremes. They avoid making such specific applications that the commentary might quickly become dated. They also avoid discussing the significance of the passage in such a general way that it fails to engage contemporary life and culture.

      Above all, contributors to this series have made a diligent effort not to sound moralistic or preachy. The NIV Application Commentary Series does not seek to provide ready-made sermon materials but rather tools, ideas, and insights that will help you communicate God’s Word with power. If we help you to achieve that goal, then we have fulfilled the purpose for this series.

      The Editors

      General Editor’s Preface

      PROPHETS DIDN’T GET TO BE PROPHETS by being rays of sunshine. It is almost mandatory for prophets to be harbingers of doom. They sound dyspeptic, act morosely, and are generally irritable and cranky.

      In the case of the biblical prophets, the context and nature of the doom that drove them to prophesy varies. Sometimes it is threats from outside Israel, sometimes internal dissention, and almost always a failure of holiness. The cause of the doom, however, never varies. It is always due to God’s wrath falling on sin and sinner alike.

      Joel, Obadiah, and Malachi are three concise examples of the prophetic genre. Judgment drips like blood from the pages of these three books. God’s wrath challenges Israelites in almost every paragraph. None of these books is long, but they make up for their terseness with their pointed accusations and warnings.

      We should not equate shortness with simplicity, however. It does not take much reading of this material to see that the judgment being communicated is a complicated affair. Each of the elements of the orders peccatore—sin leads to judgment leads to repentance leads to restoration—needs to be nuanced in order to have practical meaning. Joel, Obadiah, and Malachi are all about judgment, but three different settings for that judgment emerge. It is helpful to have David Baker deal with all three of these books in the NIV Application Commentary, because a great deal of understanding about prophecy and judgment comes from comparing and contrasting these three words from God.

      Consider, for example, just one simple question: On whom does God’s judgment fall? On Israel? On Israel’s enemies? On us all? Joel likens God’s judgment to an army of locusts that descends on us all. Like a winged AIDS infestation they destroy everything in their path. It is clear that for Joel, the locust invasion is a metaphor for what will happen on the Day of the Lord, when all righteousness accounts will be settled. To describe this judgment we are driven to metaphors of nature, the economy, or foreign armies, but Joel’s point is that the scope of God’s judgment exceeds them all. The scope is so wide that it drives us either to despair at ever measuring up or to submission to God’s power.

      Yet the second book of the trio, Obadiah, drives home the message that Israel’s mortal enemy, Edom, will be brought low by God’s consuming fire. God’s judgment, it becomes clear, inevitably falls on any and all of Israel’s enemies. The day of the LORD is near for all nations. As you have done, it will be done to you; your deeds will return upon your head (v. 15). Obadiah’s prediction that God will punish Edom for standing by as her kinsmen in Judah were overrun by Babylon could lead to a kind of nationalistic triumphalism (We’re number one and God will protect us) or to a humble recognition that God must not be trifled with.

      The final book, Malachi, builds on this humble recognition theme because God’s wrath is turned on Israel herself at a time when they have neglected the worship of God and failed to live according to God’s will. Malachi pulls no punches. He calls the negligent priesthood to account, and he chastises the callous commoners who are ignoring their families.

      The recognition that God’s judgment falls on us all—on our enemies and on us—is a primary message of these three books taken together. Such a recognition helps us handle the more difficult questions those of us in the twenty-first century have about the ticklish questions of judgment:

      • Can a loving God at the same time be a judge? The obvious answer for Joel, Obadiah, and Malachi is yes.

      • Are we God’s instruments of judgment? Only in the most indirect sense. Since we ourselves are often judged, we cannot really claim the authority of being God’s judges. The collective effect of Joel’s, Obadiah’s, and Malachi’s messages is to anticipate Matthew 7:1: Do not judge, or you too will be judged. The most we can do is call attention to the fact that God hates sin and will judge sinners. The Day of the Lord will come. But we know neither the time nor the place—only imperfectly the method.

      • How clearly can we identify and differentiate between God’s wrath and Satan’s evil? Not clearly at all. In biblical times it took God’s specially anointed prophets to make those calls. Today we must recognize that we are equally ignorant of God’s righteous ways and terribly short on true prophets (and not nearly short enough on prophet pretenders).

      Joel, Obadiah, and Malachi tell us that God does judge righteousness. They tell us that God chooses the time, place, and method of judgment, but doesn’t usually let us in on what he decides. And Joel, Obadiah, and Malachi do one more important thing. While discharging their messages of doom and destruction, they leave us all with a feeling not of hopelessness but of hopefulness. Joel does it with his promise of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit on all people. Return to the LORD your God, for he is gracious and compassionate, slow to anger and abounding in love, and he relents from sending calamity (Joel 2:12–13).

      Obadiah does it by describing restoration in concrete material terms: But on Mount Zion will be deliverance; it will be holy and the house of Jacob will possess its inheritance (v. 17).

      Malachi does it in a way fitting for the last book of the Old Testament. He predicts the coming of a Messiah who will lead the people to the realization of all their dreams and hopes, a Messiah who would be announced by a prophet (who turned out to be John the Baptist).

      Judgment for judgment’s sake is not judgment but revenge. That is not what Joel, Obadiah, and Malachi are about. Theirs is a hard message, but it is a message that has repentance and restoration as its goal.

      Terry C. Muck

      Author’s Preface

      WAR, TERROR, PAIN, and sickness—signs of our times. It behooves us to remember that we are not alone in these situations. People from every generation have faced these challenges, and many have turned to God for help. Joel’s audience faced a natural catastrophe in the form of a plague of locusts, which, with accompanying drought, threatened their agricultural livelihood. These events, along with overwhelming military forces, put their national existence in jeopardy, driving them to God. Obadiah’s people faced attack from their neighbors, and Malachi had to contend with his own people showing antagonism and opposition to God. Each had to speak God’s words of comfort or confrontation into their situation, just as the church must do in today’s world.

      I thank the faculty, administration, and students of Ashland Theological Seminary for providing a supportive environment in which to teach and write. It is interesting to see the truths of the prophets enfleshed, at times standing in faith before nature’s onslaughts and at times exemplifying Malachi’s experiences. I thank the institution for study leave support to pursue this project. I also thank those editors associated with this exciting and challenging commentary project: Terry Muck for the invitation, and Andy Dearman and Verlyn Verbrugge for their suggestions and improvements throughout the book.

      Tyndale House in Cambridge, England, is a vibrant and supportive place in which to research and write, and I thank its staff and my fellow learners for the time I was able to spend there. I also thank the library staff and the interlibrary loan system at Ashland for its efficiency.

      Most of all, I thank my wife, Morven, and my children, son Adam and his wife Jennifer, and daughter Emily, for their presence and support during the writing process. During this time, Morven completed her own doctoral studies in an area of counseling—sexual abuse and recovery—which receives mention in Malachi; she also took the time to read and comment on this work, which I deeply appreciate. My children are moving toward careers in education and counseling, for which we thank our God. The times spent apart for writing and research have been difficult, but I pray that God will repay you for the years the locusts have eaten (Joel 2:25).

      Abbreviations

      AB Anchor Bible

      ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary

      AHw Akkadisches Handwörterbuch

      ANEP Ancient Near Eastern Pictures

      ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts

      AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament

      ASV American Standard Version

      ATJ Ashland Theological Journal

      BDB Brown-Driver-Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament

      BEATAJ Beiträge zur Erforschung des alten Testaments und des antiken Judentums

      BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library

      BST Bible Speaks Today

      BT The Bible Translator

      BZAW Beihefte zum Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

      CAD Chicago Assyrian Dictionary

      CAT Commentaire de l’Ancien Testament

      CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

      COS Context of Scripture

      CTR Criswell Theological Review

      DCH Dictionary of Classical Hebrew

      DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons

      DOTP Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch

      DSB Daily Study Bible

      ESV English Standard Version

      GKC Gesenius-Kautzsch-Cowley’s Hebrew Grammar

      GNB Good News Bible

      HALOT Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament

      HAR Hebrew Annual Review

      HCOT Historical Commentary on the Old Testament

      HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs

      ICC International Critical Commentary

      JB Jerusalem Bible

      Joüon P. Joüon, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew

      JSSR Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion

      KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament

      KJV King James Version

      LXX Septuagint

      MT Masoretic Text

      NASB New American Standard Bible

      NBD New Bible Dictionary

      NCBC New Century Bible Commentary

      NCV New Century Version

      NEAEHL The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land

      NIBC New International Biblical Commentary

      NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament

      NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis

      NIV New International Version

      NJB New Jerusalem Bible

      NJPS New Jewish Publication Society version

      NLT New Living Translation

      NRSV New Revised Standard Version

      NWT New World Translation

      OTL Old Testament Library

      REB Revised English Bible

      SAOT Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations

      SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series

      TCS Texts from Cunieform Sources

      TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries

      TUAT Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments

      UT C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook

      VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements

      Waltke-O’Connor B. Waltke and M. O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax

      WEC Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary

      Williams Ronald J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax: An Outline

      YNER Yale Near Eastern Researches

      ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

      Introduction to Joel

      WESTERN ECONOMIES, WHICH depend largely on manufacturing, service, and technology, react strongly to market fluctuations. The stock market plays a significant role by indicating the public face of economic health. Vacillations in it not only reflect but also affect the entire economy.

      This is not the case in every society, however. For example, in more agriculturally based societies, such as in North America before the Industrial Revolution or in the ancient Near East during the period of the Old Testament, other factors play into economic fortune or failure. Events that affect crops or herds precipitate economic weal or woe. Timely, sufficient rainfall aid crop production, while blight or drought cripples it.

      A disastrous event for agriculturalist and pastoralist alike is an infestation of locusts. When they hatch and swarm, they can be as dense as four to five thousand insects per square meter, and they strip all green foliage, destroying crops and trees.¹ This then depletes the next season’s fodder for livestock as well as grain for the family larder. With no large-scale ability to stockpile supplies, such an event places nations in grave peril.

      This is the situation driving Joel’s prophecy. His hearers know and fear agricultural calamities. Such things also serve as the metaphorical vehicle to symbolize another rapacious catastrophe, an invading enemy army. The prophet plays off these two events in his prophecies. He likens the two events as both being catastrophic, but also as times in which Yahweh restores his people’s fortunes.

      This kind of hope in the face of catastrophe is not one that sits well with many Christians today. A health and wealth gospel understands blessing as flowing inevitably from a right relationship with God, while suffering indicates a breach in one’s relationship with him. Joel gives a different take on this. He does not imply that blessing means elimination of obstacles and pain, but rather that God’s presence, bringing one through these events, which are a natural concomitant to all human existence, is where blessing really resides.

      Joel the Person

      THE STATED WRITER of these prophecies is Joel, whose name means Yah[weh] is God. While a ringing affirmation of faith at any time, it is an especially appropriate name during a period when Baalism was making inroads into Israel, evidence for which is suggested by some.² Since religious syncretism was a constant threat to God’s people from the time of the Conquest to at least the time of Josiah (640–609 B.C.; 2 Kings 23:4–5) and possibly even until the postexilic period (Zech. 12:11), the name does not provide much interpretational help. It is used in the Old Testament during this entire time period.³ The only other identifying feature of Joel is his father’s name, Pethuel, which is otherwise unknown.

      From internal evidence, Joel is a man of all the people. He announces suffering for all levels of society, from leader to common field laborer. All suffer, but also all will be blessed and restored. This extends not only throughout the various social strata, but also through divisions of age and sex (cf. Joel 2:28–29). Joel’s announcements are tinged more with empathy than with condemnation. He lays little blame for the situation on God’s people (five times referring to them as my people: 2:26–27); rather, he offers them the hope arising from judgment against their oppressors.

      Geopolitical Context

      THE PROPHECIES OF JOEL are directed toward Judah (3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20) and Jerusalem (2:32; 3:1, 6, 16, 17, 20). Israel is mentioned only three times, once indicating the northern kingdom that has already been exiled (3:2) and twice referring to the entire nation, including and perhaps being coterminous with Judah (2:27; 3:16). Holy sites such as the temple (the house of the LORD, 1:9, 14; cf. 2:17; the house of your/our God, 1:13, 16); and Zion (2:1, 15, 23, 32; 3:16, 17, 21) are frequent, while there is no reference to any strictly northern Israelite sites. Unlike other prophets such as Amos, where both Israel and Judah find a place, Joel reserves his comments for Judah.

      An unidentified army threatens Judah (Joel 2:1–11), while other peoples are explicitly identified in 3:4–8, raising the prophecies onto the world stage. The three enemies of Judah—Tyre, Sidon, and the regions of Philistia (3:4)—sell Judeans to the Ionians (Greeks, 3:6) and are themselves sold to the Sabaeans (3:8). Tyre is an island city on the Phoenician coast in what is now Lebanon, about twenty-five miles south of Sidon. An ancient town, it is known from Egyptian, Assyrian, and Ugaritic sources as well as later, classical sources. It was connected to the mainland by a causeway under Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. In the tenth century B.C., its rulers befriended Israel (e.g., 2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kings 5), but later the relationship degenerated (e.g., Amos 1:9–11), culminating with Tyrian celebration when Jerusalem fell to Babylon, and she was able to benefit from Judah’s demise (Ezek. 26:1).

      Sidon to the north is also an ancient coastal city mentioned in early extrabiblical sources, including some coins identifying it as the mother of Tyre.⁴ It experienced conflict with Israel as early as the judges period (Judg. 10:12) and was taken by Babylon at the same time that Jerusalem fell (cf. Jer. 25:22; 27:3; 47:4). The last reference indicates that Tyre and the Philistines would fall at the same time.

      The five cities of Philistia (Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath) are situated further south on the Mediterranean coastline to the west of the Dead Sea. The settlers in the region apparently originated in the Aegean Sea area and arrived from the west and north at almost the same time as the Israelites moved into the land from the south and west. Conflict between the two peoples vying for the same territory was fierce, as reflected in Judges and throughout the life of David, who was able to subdue them (1 Sam. 17; 18:6–9, 25–27, 30; 19:8), though conflict was not eliminated (cf. 1 Kings 15:27; 16:15; 2 Chron. 21:16–17). Subdued by Assyria and Babylonia, the Philistines became a Persian colony, losing their own identity.⁵

      The two other nations received exiles. Judeans and Jerusalemites ended up among the Ionians (Joel 3:6, Greeks; Heb. yewānîm). Mention is first made of the eponymous ancestor Javan (yāwān), a descendant of Japheth, in the Table of Nations (Gen. 10:2, 4; cf. 1 Chron. 1:5), but the nation itself is only mentioned in later biblical texts (Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13, 19; Zech. 9:13; Dan. 8:21; 10:20; 11:2). Although it reached its greatest dominance over the region during the Hellenistic period (338–146 B.C.), Greece had contacts and influence in Israel from at least the seventh century B.C.⁶ Nothing of this Greek human trade receives mention elsewhere in Scripture, but slavery formed a noticeable part of the Greek economy.⁷

      The nations exploiting Judah were themselves to be sold to the Sabaeans, a nation far away (Joel 3:8), whose eponymous ancestor is also first encountered in the Table of Nations as a descendant of Shem (Sheba in Gen. 10:28; cf. 1 Chron. 1:22). They are a south Arabian nation with diplomatic relations with Israel as early as the tenth century B.C., when their queen visited Solomon (1 Kings 10; 2 Chron. 9). Both the Greeks and the Sabaeans are far removed from the everyday life of Judah, so exile to these locations may be a way of saying that people end up in the back of beyond.

      Finally, two nations, Egypt and Edom, suffer as a result of their violence against Judah (Joel 3:19). Egypt is one of the regional superpowers, gaining and losing control over Israel repeatedly.⁸ Israel lies on the natural land routes between Egypt and her neighbors to the north and east, so military campaigns from or against Egypt naturally proceeded through Israel, with accompanying depredations from most who stormed through. A backward look at previous Egypt-Israel relationships could look to many periods, while reference to the future destruction could refer to that done by Assyria in the late eighth century B.C., Babylonia in the late seventh-early sixth centuries, or Persia in the mid-sixth century.

      The history of interaction between Judah and her eastern neighbor Edom is riddled with animosity, perhaps culminating at the destruction of Jerusalem, but by no means only starting there (see the commentary on Obadiah in this volume). This animosity continued until at least 553 B.C., when Babylon captured Edom.⁹ It may well have continued beyond this time among the remnants of the Edomites, but their history during the Persian and Hellenistic periods is not well known.¹⁰

      Chronological Context

      THERE IS NO direct evidence from the book itself to determine its historical setting conclusively, though circumstantial evidence has been mined for assistance. Its position toward the beginning of the Minor Prophets, between two prophets dated to the eighth century, has led some to place it early in the history of Israelite prophecy.¹¹ The LXX, however, associates Joel with the later Obadiah and Jonah, so chronology cannot be the deciding factor in both cases. The reasons for the relative position of books within the canon are unclear, so they provide no compelling proof. It is probable that matters of content rather than chronology (cf. the discussion of Joel 3:16, 18 and their ties to Amos 1:2; 9:13) led to Joel’s placement before Amos.¹²

      References to Judah (Joel 3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19) outnumber those to Israel (2:27; 3:2, 16). At least one reference to Israel (3:2) indicates that the northern nation of Israel was already exiled, placing the prophecies after the fall of Israel and its capital, Samaria, in 722 B.C. The term Israel can apply, however, to the entire nation, including Judah, as it seems to do in 2:27 and 3:16. If so, the prophecies concern either the period after the loss of territory and increased tribute to Assyria exacted in 701 B.C. (2 Kings 18:13–16), after the defeat and exile in 598/597 B.C. under the Neo-Babylonian Empire (2 Kings 24:10–16; 2 Chron. 36:6; Jer. 36:30), or even after the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in 587 B.C.

      Weighing against the latter interpretation is reference to an existing house of the LORD or the temple where people minister before him (Joel 1:9, 13, 14, 16; 2:17). This rules out the period from 586–516/515 B.C., between its destruction and rebuilding under the leadership of Zerubbabel (cf. Haggai, Zechariah). A preexilic period might be preferred, since the temple destruction is anticipated and prayed against (2:17) rather than remembered, as it would have been after 587, though there are undoubtedly such prayers also brought for the Second Temple, rebuilt under Ezra.

      Crenshaw suggests a later date since the reference to the captivity (3:2 [3:2]) and deportation of Jewish children (3:3 [3:3]) exclude a time before the fall of Jerusalem. Furthermore, the animosity toward Edom (3:19 [3:19]) is best explained in connection with the events of 586, when fleeing Judeans were turned over to the Babylonians by neighboring Edomites.¹³ Neither point is compelling for an exilic or postexilic date, though they do allow it. Capture and deportation were all too familiar to Judah from long experience, as already noted, and Edom’s and Egypt’s destruction is anticipated in 3:19 (see Obadiah, who also prophesies concerning Edom).

      Joel looks back on Judah’s mistreatment by several enemies: Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia (3:4), who sell captives to the Greeks (Ionians, 3:6) and themselves end up in the hands of the Sabaeans (3:8). No specific biblical reference is made to any of these events, so they do not help in determining the date of the events described. This is exacerbated since there is in each case a long history of animosity between Judah and these nations, and capture of prisoners for trade as slaves was a common element of ancient war.

      The prophet makes frequent use of material from other prophets, and that might prove more useful in determining at least a relative date of the book. In some cases it is not clear in which way the borrowing went, but that is not the case in Joel 2:32. There, in quoting Obadiah 17a, Joel uses the quotation formula as the LORD has said. There are a number of other cases of prophetic allusion in the small book. These include the following (Joel references are listed first, without a book designation):

      1:15–Isa. 13:6[2x]; Ezek. 30:2–3; Obad. 15; Zeph. 1:7

      2:2–Zeph. 1:14–15

      2:3–Isa. 51:3; Ezek. 36:35

      2:6–Nah. 2:10

      2:13–Ex. 34:6; Jonah 4:2

      2:10–Jonah 3:9

      2:12–Ps. 79:10; 115:2

      2:20–21–Isa. 45:5, 6, 14, 18, 21, 22; 46:9

      2:28–Ezek. 39:29

      2:31–Mal. 4:5

      2:32–Obad. 17

      3:1–Jer. 33:15; 50:4, 20

      3:2–Isa. 66:18; Zech. 14:2

      3:5–Obad. 15

      3:8–Isa. 1:2; 22:25; (24:3); 25:8; Jer. 13:15; Obad. 18

      3:10–Isa. 2:4

      3:16–Amos 1:2

      3:16–Isa. 13:13

      3:17–Ezek. 36:11 + nineteen other times in Ezekiel¹⁴

      3:18–Amos 9:13

      Meier makes the useful observation that since much of the prophetic output is no longer available, it is difficult to determine just how many citations marked explicitly as divine speech are in fact quotations from anterior oracles.¹⁵ In other words, there may well be additional citations in Joel that we cannot determine. From the existing allusions, however, a time period around 500 B.C. well fits the evidence.

      Prinsloo helpfully comments regarding the topic of dating of Joel:

      It is virtually impossible to date it exactly purely on the basis of its contents. Without adopting an ahistorical approach or ignoring the problems, the sincere exegete should acknowledge this fact. And if it is conceded that it is all but impossible to date the book satisfactorily, he must adopt the only other course left open to him, namely to use the text of Joel itself to the utmost to try and discover its actual message and intention. Since the historical context cannot be accurately reconstructed, the book has to be expounded within its intrinsic literary context.¹⁶

      Literary Art

      JOEL IS WRITTEN mainly in poetry, as is the case for most prophecy. As such, it uses language carefully and for effect. Two literary devices used frequently in the book are simile and metaphor, figurative comparisons between things. Simile is evident through the twelve appearances of the comparative preposition like in Hebrew (see Joel 1:8, 15; 2:2, 3, 4[2x], 5[3x], 7[2x], 9).

      Metaphor is also plentiful in Joel. These include various types:

      • personification: nation of locusts (1:6); ground mourns (1:10); land fears, is glad, rejoices (2:21); innocent blood (3:19)

      • animal: Yahweh’s roaring (3:16)

      • plant: joy withers away (1:12)

      • meaning extension: rend the heart (2:13); locusts as fire and flame (1:19; 2:3, possibly literal); locusts eating years (2:25); harvesting of sins (3:13); Yahweh as stronghold and fortress (3:16); pouring out Spirit (2:28–29); treading grapes as judgment (3:13, cf. Jer. 25:30; Lam. 1:15)

      A central literary concern is the unity of the book, which is questioned because of the clear break between a description of a natural calamity that had befallen Judah (Joel 1–2:27) on the one hand, and a future international (eschatological?) judgment (2:28–3:21) on the other.¹⁷ It must be noted, however, that much of the vocabulary in Joel is repeated within the book, often more than once, or else themes or motifs are reused. This emphasizes the seriousness of the message, but also the unity of the text.¹⁸ One cannot with certainty say at what stage this unity is achieved, or whether it is the work of a single author¹⁹ or of a redactor of originally separate units.²⁰ In its present form, however, the book functions well as a unit.

      Theology

      The Day of the Lord

      THE DAY OF THE LORD plays a significant literary as well as theological role in the book. Five times Joel uses that phrase (1:15; 2:1, 11, 31; 3:14), while six times he describes days of God’s intervention (1:15, that day; 2:2, day of darkness and gloom, day of clouds and blackness; 2:29, in those days [pouring out God’s Spirit]; 3:1, in those days [restore Judah’s fortunes]; 3:18, in that day [abundance of wine, milk, and water]),²¹ arranged in such a way throughout the book as to suggest that the writer saw it as a unifying theme.²² The Day of the Lord plays a rich role in the prophets,²³ and two of its facets are brought out by Joel: the nature of this day and the time of its coming.

      The Day is commonly held by Israel to be a day in which God blesses them, a day to be anticipated (e.g., Amos 5:18). This view is supported by numerous false prophets who present the same theological fallacy: If you are an Israelite, you only face hope and blessing (e.g., Jer. 14:13–15; 27:9–18; Ezek. 13:10–12; Mic. 3:5). It is thus easy for Joel’s audience, and Israel from all periods in her history, to anticipate the wrong message when they hear about the coming of the Day of the Lord.

      Three references to the Day of the Lord in Joel indicate that it is near or at hand (Joel 1:15; 2:1; 3:14), and another describes it as being already present (2:11). This is a common warning motif among the prophets, calling for attention to something before it might come (e.g., Isa. 13:6; Ezek. 30:3; Obad. 15; Zeph. 1:7, 14). The fifth occurrence of the Day, however, puts a different chronological slant on it, viewing it as distant (2:31), an event coming afterward (Joel 2:28). The two chronological vantage points also present different interpretations of its nature. All five occurrences in the book speak of a time of calamity, terror, destruction, and darkness. The first three have it happening to Israel and her people. The last two verses, however, direct the judgmental aspects of the Day against Israel’s neighbors (3:12), or those even among Israel who are not responding appropriately to God (contrasted with those who do respond rightly in 2:32).

      There is a distinction, therefore, between the near term day, which is black indeed for everyone, and a more distant day, which anticipates a time of hope for the faithful (cf. 2:29; 3:1, 18). In light of the despair facing everyone because of the current calamities, there needs to be a ray of future hope, but also a warning that there is no restoration without repentance.

      There is also evidence that the blessings of the Day for a repentant people might not be that distant. Joel describes God’s pity on his people (Joel 2:19), referring to the prophecy in Hosea 2:21–22. The immediate context of Joel does not mention the Day, but Hosea places it in that context.

      This shows that the concept of the Day of the Lord is not monolithic, anticipating one event at a future time. While there is evidence for a future and cataclysmic event of judgment and of blessing, there are also

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