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    A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand
    A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand
    A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand
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    A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand

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    Published by the American Geophysical Union as part of the Geophysical Monograph Series, Volume 175.

    A Continental Plate Boundary     offers in one place the most comprehensive, up-to-date knowledge for researchers and students to learn about the tectonics and plate dynamics of the Pacific-Australian continental plate boundary in South Island and about the application of modern geological and geophysical methods. It examines what happens when convergence and translation occur at a plate boundary by
    • Describing the geological and geophysical signature of a continental transform fault;
    • Identifying the diverse vertical and lateral patterns of deformation at the plate boundary;
    • Assessing an apparent seismicity gap on the plate boundary fault and fast-moving plate motions;
    • Comparing this plate boundary to other global convergent continental strike-slip plate boundaries;
    • Documenting the utility of the double-sided, onshore-offshore seismic method for exploration of a narrow continental island; and
    • Providing additional papers presenting previously unpublished results.

    This volume will prove invaluable for seismologists, tectonophysicists, geodesists and potential-field geophysicists, geologists, geodynamicists, and students of the deformation of tectonic plates.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherWiley
    Release dateApr 30, 2013
    ISBN9781118671771
    A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand

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      A Continental Plate Boundary - David Okaya

      PREFACE

      Continental collision is a fundamental geologic process in plate tectonics that impacts on continental growth, continental deformation, the development of natural resources, and the occurrence of natural hazards. Convergent plate boundaries where continents collide are often broadly distributed and, where strain rates are high, result in major deformation of the continental lithosphere and the development of mountain ranges. Within mountain belts, compression, thrust faulting, and erosion can combine to generate uplift and overthickened crust, and exhume large sections of high-grade, once deeply buried rocks, associated faults, and sutures. Although the well-exposed surface geology of some mountain chains provides an important starting point for understanding the deformational processes acting at the plate boundary, well designed geophysical investigations are essential to understand the dynamics of a convergent continental plate boundary and constrain the deformational processes and their drivers within the deeper crust and lithospheric mantle.

      The Pacific and Indo-Australian plates in South Island, New Zealand, are separated by the transpressional Alpine fault. Associated with this continental transform fault are the Southern Alps, a relatively simple and young orogen created by continental collision whose zone of deformation is laterally narrow and uncomplicated by subsequent tectonic overprinting. This mountain system offers the opportunity to understand how lithospheric rocks deform within a developing orogen and how this deformation may have changed with time. Because relative plate motions are oblique, the Alpine fault needs to accommodate both convergence and lateral slip. Topical questions regarding this plate boundary relate to whether strain is partitioned and whether it is localized or diffuse within the crust and/or lithospheric mantle. Furthermore, this transpressional plate boundary has often been compared to the Transverse Ranges of the San Andreas fault (California, USA) and contrasted to the Dead Sea transform (Israel-Jordan), the Northern Anatolian fault (Turkey), and the Denali fault (Alaska, USA). Continental collision at this plate boundary serves as a model to understand other more complex active orogenic regions where deformation is broader or occurred over a much longer period, such as in the Cordillera of western North America where the width of deformation exceeds several hundreds of kilometers.

      In the early 1990s an international collaboration formed between New Zealand and United States geoscientists in order to study continental collision at the Pacific/Indo-Australian plate boundary. The selection of this site in central South Island was attractive because of supposed similarities to the Transverse Ranges in southern California (of direct interest to the U.S. investigators); easy access well into the heart of the Southern Alps; a low population density which improved field experiment logistics, permitting, and signal-to-noise levels; a narrow island width, which allowed marine seismic methods to be applied onto both sides of the land-situated orogen; and an established foundation of scientific knowledge built by an excellent in-country scientific community. The initial collaboration, funded by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science, and Technology and the U.S.’s National Science Foundation (Continental Dynamics Program), was quickly joined by additional scientists primarily from New Zealand who performed their own relevant but independent studies. Thus a decade-long focus on the central South Island transpressional plate boundary ensued. More than fifty scientists and students participated in the overall set of studies, many of which involved substantial field observation experiments, and which has led to forty journal publications and a dozen graduate theses.

      This volume represents a collection of papers which primarily summarizes the results that arose from our overall New Zealand-U.S. collaboration. The chapters cover a range of geological and geophysical investigations and provide further insight into the deformation and evolution of continental collision. The volume is divided into four sections. Preceding the first section, an inroductory chapter presents the scientific questions that motivated the collaborations and summarizes the key findings of the overall research. The first section presents the regional framework of the Pacific/Indo-Australian plate boundary within South Island; its six chapters summarize what is known of the geology and geophysics of what is essentially the far-field region relative to deformation at the plate boundary. The second section focuses on the plate boundary (Alpine) fault and the Southern Alps orogen; the two geological and two geophysical chapters characterize the near-field region of the plate boundary. The third section contains three chapters which examine the dynamics of the plate boundary - how mechanically the plate boundary and its fault(s) accommodate both strike-slip and convergent motions. The final section presents three chapters that compare the Alpine fault-Southern Alps system to other transpressional and obliquely convergent plate boundaries. We have included a CD-ROM that contains both color versions of figures that are printed in black & white within the volume plus supplemental/oversize materials that provide added content to selected chapters.

      As editors, we acknowledge and greatly appreciate the contributions provided by the authors and reviewers. This volume would not have been possible without the major efforts of the authors, who squeezed into their very full schedules the time to write summary and synthesis papers. Reviewers, as usual, have carried out an essential and often underappreciated task; we thank Duncan Agnew, Thora Arnadottir, Gary Axen, Geoff Batt, David Berryman, Tom Brocher, Tim Byrne, Ramon Carbonell, James Connolly, John Dewey, Donna Eberhart-Phillips, Susan Ellis, Andrew Gorman, David Gray, John Hole, Keith Howard, Leon Teng, Vadim Levin, Tim Little, Zhen Liu, John Louie, Peter Malin, Peter Molnar, Martin Reyners, David Rodgers, Martyn Unsworth, and five anonymous reviewers. We also thank Harm van Avendonk and Stuart Henrys for handling the editorial duties for two of the chapter papers.

      We thank at AGU the book acquisition editors - initially Allan Graubard and subsequently Jeffrey Robbins. The patient support of the AGU books and special publications staff, particularly Dawn Seigler, administrative assistant, and Maxine Aldred, program coordinator, is greatly appreciated.

      Funds to cover publication costs were provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation Continental Dynamics Program, the New Zealand Foundation for Research Science and Technology, GNS Science, and Victoria University of Wellington. We particularly thank Dr. Leonard Johnson, Program Director of NSF-CD, who also provided funds for a synthesis workshop held during June 2005, in Christchurch, New Zealand, that led directly to the organization and contents of this volume. We also direct special thanks to John McRaney, at the University of Southern California, who not only arranged for additional funds to defray publication costs but provided administrative and logistical support throughout our New Zealand-US projects that facilitated our large field experiments to take place.

      Finally, we wish to dedicate this volume to three scientists who had profound influence on our interest in the South Island transpressional plate boundary and on our establishment of the New Zealand-U.S. collaboration: Prof. Richard I. Walcott (Victoria University of Wellington), Prof. Thomas L. Henyey (University of Southern California), and Prof. Thomas V. McEvilly (University of California, Berkeley). Dick Walcott was one of the first geophysicists in the 1970’s to investigate the deformation of New Zealand using geodetic data; his studies of active deformation provided the foundations for many scientists’ subsequent studies on the kinematics and dynamics of New Zealand’s subduction and strike slip plate boundaries. Dick provided early guidance to our project scientific direction. His careful use of field observations to quantitatively constrain concepts was an approach that we applied throughout our South Island collaborations. Tom Henyey similarly valued field observations; his initial interest in New Zealand was in the collection of heat flow measurements in South Island lakes following a sabbatical in 1982 at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in Wellington. Tom’s long-standing research in the tectonics of Southern California led to an early interest in the comparison between the transpressional San Andreas and Alpine faults. Discussions of this comparison with one of us (TS) beginning in 1988 led to concrete plans for a multinational geophysical examination of the Alpine fault plate boundary; Tom’s leadership was instrumental in assembling our trans-Pacific collaboration and steering it through its original tenure. Tom McEvilly was the rare seismologist who knew how to design at scales ranging from the inner workings of seismometers all the way up to effective structures of national and international community organizations such as IRIS and FDSN. After providing sound advice at an early planning workshop in Wellington, New Zealand, Tom became an active project participant. He led our passive seismic experiments, in planning and with shovel in hand, and bird-dogged the seismic crew we contracted for seismic reflection profiling near Mount Cook. Tom, who passed away in 2002, had a wry sense of humor that could defuse the tension or enliven the dullness of any meeting. As a mentor he had a knack for correcting us in such a way so that we thought we solved mistakes on our own. We extend our gratitude to Professors Dick Walcott, Tom Henyey, and Tom McEvilly, who all led by their example how to accomplish high caliber research and gave us strong encouragement to carry out the collaborative research presented in this volume.

      David Okaya

      Tim Stern

      Fred Davey

      Continent-Continent Collision at the Pacific/Indo-Australian Plate Boundary: Background, Motivation, and Principal Results

      David Okaya¹, Tim Stern², Fred Davey³, Stuart Henrys³, and Simon Cox⁴

      ¹Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.

      ²School of Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.

      ³GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand.

      ⁴GNS Science, Dunedin, New Zealand.

      BACKGROUND

      Mountain belts are important and highly visible structural elements of the earth’s continental crust. They impact societies by providing natural resources, hosting processes which produce natural hazards, and by their influence on weather and climate. One important mechanism in mountain formation is continent-continent collision at plate boundaries. Within mountain belts, compression, thrust faulting, and erosion can combine to generate uplift and over-thickened crust, and exhume large sections of high-grade, once deeply-buried rocks and associated faults, sutures, and folds. The well-exposed surface geology of mountain belts provides an important starting point or ground truth for geological and geophysical investigations of continental dynamics and the relevant processes in the deeper crust.

      Continent-continent collision occurs at two major plate boundary settings. The first is at convergent plate boundaries where a continental lithospheric plate comes into contact with another such plate, often creating spectacular collisional orogens (e.g., the Himalayan system due to Indian-Eurasian plate collision and the Zagros belt due to Arabian-Eurasian plate interaction). The second major setting is at strike-slip plate boundaries, where a component of oblique convergence will often result in mountain building on either or both sides of the plate boundary. Notable cases are the Southern Alps in New Zealand and the Transverse Ranges in southern California. The structure and kinematic regime of these transpressional orogens is thus, in all likelihood, more complex as a result of the need to accommodate large amounts of lateral slip, as well as convergence.

      WHY STUDY NEW ZEALAND?

      New Zealand is a largely submarine continent that lies across the boundary between the Pacific and Australian plates (Plate 1). Subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the Australian plate occurs at the eastern margin of North Island. Subduction of the Australian plate occurs along the Puysegur Trench and under the southwestern tip of South Island. Connecting these subduction zones of opposite polarity is a continental transform fault - the Alpine fault - which runs obliquely through South Island (Plate 2). Present day relative velocity between the two plates is about 38 mm/y. A component of compression has existed across the Alpine Fault for at least the past 5–10 million years [Walcott, 1998], which has resulted in the building of the Southern Alps with a maximum elevation of 3754 m.

      Central South Island has long been considered a premier site to study oblique continent-continent convergence [Molnar, 1988]. Rates of erosion and concomitant vertical movement of crustal rock here are among the highest in the world (~10 mm/yr) [Blythe, 1998], and the Alpine fault has components of both strike-slip and dip-slip movement [Norris et al., 1990]. The orogen is young, and the zone of deformation is relatively narrow (~80 km wide) and uncomplicated by subsequent tectonic overprinting (Plate 2). In many cases, such as in southeast Asia or the Cordillera of western North America, the width of the zone of deformation exceeds hundreds of kilometers and is often complicated by a lengthy history of tectonic episodes [Dickinson, 2003].

      The rapid deformation of central South Island [Walcott, 1979; Beavan et al., 1999] allows active processes to be studied thoroughly using Quaternary geology, geodesy, thermochronology, and seismology, building on established programs in these disciplines within New Zealand. The geology of the country (Plate 3A; see oversized version on the CD-ROM that accompanies this volume) permits the separation of older tectonic episodes from Cenozoic deformation, and makes quantifying the amounts of deformation by various mechanisms easier than in other areas of the world. This quantification is aided by the narrowness of the belt between two well-defined lithospheric plates. For example, the lower and middle crust has been turned up and exhumed along the Alpine fault (Figure 1) resulting in exposure of progressively deeper parts of the crust that can be sampled along a line only 20-30 km long [Wellman, 1979]. The combination of exceptionally rapid erosion [Tippett and Kamp, 1993; Little et al., 2005] and youthful deformation allows the study of mountain building in its infancy through the simultaneous analysis of rocks deformed at the surface and those deeply exhumed in late Cenozoic time.

      Plate 1. The plate tectonic setting of the New Zealand region. In South Island (box), the transpressional Alpine fault (dotted line) separates the Hikurangi and Puysegur trenches along the Pacific-Australian plate boundary. Morphology in color. [From Davey et al., this volume].

      c00_image001.jpg

      Plate 2. South Island, the Alpine fault and Southern Alps. (A) Oblique-view image of South Island with SIGHT lines superimposed. Visible is the Southern Alps orogen associated with the transpressional Alpine fault. Space Shuttle image STS59-229-017 courtesy of NASA. (B) Digital elevation image of South Island which reveals the linearity and sharpness of the Alpine fault. Elevation data collected by Shuttle Radar Topography Mission aboard NASA space shuttle. Image PIA06661 courtesy of NASA.

      c00_image002.jpg

      The relatively simple geology of New Zealand reveals deformation that undoubtedly has occurred elsewhere but simply cannot be seen through the complexity of the world’s typical surface geology. The demonstration of 480 km of right-lateral slip on the Alpine fault [Wellman, 1955] preceded the recognition of roughly 300 km of slip on the San Andreas fault, in part because such displacements are far more obvious from a geologic map of New Zealand than from one of California (Plate 3A). Moreover, the 480 km of slip on the Alpine fault is an underestimate for the relative displacement of the western North Island with respect to eastern South Island of New Zealand. Right-lateral shear parallel to the Alpine fault has been shown to be distributed over a relatively wide zone on South Island and perhaps over a wider zone on the North Island [e.g., Norris, 1979; Sutherland, 1999]. Reconstructions of plate motions suggest that as much as 800 km of right-lateral displacement has occurred [Stock and Molnar, 1982; Sutherland, 1999]. The difference between 450 km of slip on the Alpine fault and 800 km of total slip does not seem to have been absorbed by slip on secondary faults, but rather by distributed shear [Molnar et al., 1999].

      Figure 1. Early models of the Pacific-Australian plate boundary. (A) Wellman’s [1979] model for delamination at the Alpine fault. Crust and mantle separate. (B) Model for the geodynamic evolution of the Southern Alps [Beaumont et al., 1994] made before the SIGHT experiments were conducted. Subduction of the lower crust and mantle occurs within this numerical model. Figure courtesy of Little et al. [2002].

      c00_image003.jpg

      High quality geodetic measurements in New Zealand were central to the concepts of distributed deformation in continental regions [Walcott, 1984]. Differences between repeated geodetic surveys when integrated across South Island are consistent with both the rate and orientation of plate motion averaged over the last 2–5 Ma [Walcott, 1979, 1984, 1998; Beavan et al., 1999]. Thus, there does not appear to be a need for postulating offshore slip or strain. Moreover, the geodetically measured deformation is not confined to faults but, like the permanent strain, is diffuse. This emphasizes the need to consider continuous deformation in kinematic and dynamic modeling [e.g., Walcott, 1979, 1984; Moore et al., 2002].

      Advances in subsurface geophysical methods and crustal-scale seismic exploration in late 1980s–early 1990s led to international NZ-US collaboration. Logistically, New Zealand offers some advantages not realizable in most orogenic belts. The Southern Alps is one of the few zones of continental convergence that can be studied on both sides from the sea [Okaya et al., 2002]. The narrowness of South Island (Plate 3B; see oversized version on the CD-ROM that accompanies this volume) makes it possible to combine arrays of onshore and offshore seismic sources and receivers to greatly enrich the quality and quantity of data at modest cost. The compactness of the belt also minimizes the logistical difficulties for complementary geophysical experiments including gravity, magnetotellurics, and teleseismic seismology. With the exception of the highest part of the range, the Southern Alps are readily accessible via relatively straight rural farm roads and broad, deeply eroded, linear glacial valleys.

      KEY QUESTIONS

      By the early 1980’s it was recognized that crust and mantle of the Pacific Plate beneath central South Island separated in some fashion and the crust was being obducted and rapidly eroded (Figure 1a) [e.g., Wellman, 1979; Adams, 1980]. What was not clear at that time was the shape and position of the decollement between the crust and mantle. Moreover, it was not known how the thickened mantle lithosphere was being disposed of. Computer modeling in the early 1990’s elaborated on Wellman’s early conceptual models and defined their physical basis (Figure 1b). Shown in Figure 2 are conceptual models that were valid in 1993 to explain what may be happening beneath the Southern Alps. These are variations on the theme of decollement between crust and mantle, and/or lower crust-mantle; but most did not address the question of how the Alpine fault penetrates into the mantle.

      Plate 3. A. Geology map of South Island. Map produced from QMAP 1:250,000 geological database. This plate is a reduced version of the original oversized figure available on CD-ROM that accompanies this volume. Details of geological legend available on oversized figure. B. Location of South Island Geophysical Transects superimposed on geological map. (Top) Experimental observation locations shown for passive seismology (SAPSE), refraction and wide-angle reflection profiling (SIGHT), and petrophysical sample sites. Geological units identified on companion Plate 3A. (Bottom left) Land refraction (explosion source) profiles (SIGHT) superimposed on geology. (Bottom right) Seismic reflection profiles (CDP98) and magnetotelluric stations superimposed on digital topography. LP denotes Lake Pukaki, site of seismic reflection pilot study. This plate is a reduced version of the original oversized figure available on CD-ROM that accompanies this volume.

      c00_image004.jpgc00_image005.jpg

      The New Zealand-USA collaborative project SIGHT (South Island Geophysical Transect), formed in the early 1990’s, set out to answer the following series of questions:

      1. What is the expression of the plate boundary zone in both crust and mantle?

      2. What are the processes (structures) in the lithosphere that accommodate the oblique convergence?

      3. How are processes in the mantle coupled or related to processes in the crust?

      4. How do the distributions of horizontal and vertical strains across the plate boundary differ?

      5. Is strain generally partitioned along an obliqueconvergent continent-continent plate boundary, or might New Zealand be different? How does the answer to this question relate to patterns of aseismic and seismic strain in New Zealand?

      6. Do the reflection Moho and crustal reflectivity beneath South Island act as effective strain markers for Cenozoic deformation?

      7. If so, does deformation appear to be manifested as ductile flow, brittle failure, or a broad elastic flexure?

      8. What is the role of the Alpine fault in the convergent process? Is the apparent dip on the fault simply a surficial effect or does it persist well into the crust?

      9. Has the 500 km or so of right lateral slip along the Alpine fault left an anisotropic seismic expression in the crust or mantle?

      10. Can the mechanical processes of lateral slip along the Alpine fault and convergence across the southern Alps be considered independently in terms of structural expression or must they be treated as coupled?

      11. How does the rapid erosion rate affect the mechanics of deformation?

      12. When the seismic crustal image is combined with observed gravity data, how is the load of the Southern Alps supported? Is strength of the lithosphere important or is some dynamic support required?

      These twelve key questions gave rise to a series of experimental targets as part of the science plan for the SIGHT project that could be directly tested by seismological and complementary geophysical work.

      EXPERIMENTAL TARGETS

      The above set of scientific questions coupled with the conceptual models (Figure 2) postulated various configurations of the crust-mantle system across the Southern Alps transpressional orogen. At the time of the project beginning, an integrated model of the crust and upper mantle beneath the Southern Alps including the Alpine fault remained to be proposed. The existing models (Figure 2) were each based on mainly one type of geological or geophysical approach; nevertheless they were illustrative of the range of hypotheses that could be directly tested by seismic reflection, refraction and ancillary geophysical work along the proposed transects.

      In order to distinguish among these conceptual models, project field experiments set out to obtain the best possible information on the physical properties (e.g., rheology, composition) of the crust and lithospheric mantle and on the architecture of several key structural markers, including (1) the Moho, (2) lower-crustal reflectivity, (3) the Alpine fault and associated faults, and (4) other potential structural or compositional boundaries in the crust (e.g., top of a mafic lower crust). These structures served as important strain markers which, when combined with the results of geodetic, geobarometric/thermometric, and geological studies, produced new insights into the deformation that has accompanied transpressional orogeny in the Southern Alps. Imaging these targets provided constraints to address the above scientific questions; these constraints included:

      the rheology of the lithosphere, including the brittle/plastic transition zone,

      lithospheric composition, including continental vs. oceanic affinities, densities, and evidence for fluids,

      the dip and depth extent of the Alpine fault, especially its expression in the lower crust and mantle,

      the extent and configuration of antithetic thrusting in the eastern Alps,

      the pattern of uplift in the Alps,

      the configuration of the Moho and implications for isostatic compensation of the Alps,

      the velocity, reflectivity, and anisotropy of the upper mantle, including any evidence for shear strain accommodating plate motion,

      the underpinnings and configuration at depth of the Torlesse and Haast complexes, and

      structural and compositional controls on seismicity along the Alpine fault.

      Figure 2. Schematic models of convergence at the transpressional plate boundary between the Pacific and Australian plates. From a historical standpoint, these models were valid in 1993 and represent testable hypotheses which formed the basis for the SIGHT research project. These models involve various combinations of Pacific crust exhumation, Pacific upper crust antithetic faulting, Pacific lower crust and/or mantle in subduction, and Australian plate as a backstop with a range of possible geometries. (a) Uplift of the Southern Alps using a process of delamination of the lithosphere into its crustal and mantle components; no Southern Alps root is necessary [Wellman, 1979; see Figure 1]. (b) Application of the critical wedge model to the Southern Alps suggesting an overthickened crust with frontal faults and the existence of a detachment in the ductile lower crust [Koons, 1989, 1990]. Norris et al. [1990] suggested that exposed fault mylonites from 20–25 km depth indicate the depth at which delamination, or detachment, is taking place. Large Moho root is present. (c) Moho topography with a large root under the Southern Alps [Woodward, 1979]. (d) Shallow Moho with no root under the Southern Alps [Allis, 1986]. (e) Intracrustal detachment with seismogenic zones [Reyners, 1987]. Moho which dips. (f) Distributed uplift along many synthetic faults as opposed to uplift along the primary Alpine fault (models #a, c, d) or in a two-sided critical wedge with antithetic faults (#b, e). (g) Is there evidence that the Alpine fault may be detached along a mid-crustal decollement as has been suggested for the San Andreas fault in both northern and southern California [e.g., Hadley and Kanamori, 1977; Furlong et al., 1989; Namson and Davis, 1991], or perhaps stranded from its pre-Pliocene location in the lower crust and upper mantle as shown here? (h) Finally, what unforeseen Pacific/Indo-Australian convergence geometries might exist as suggested here or in #e or #g?

      c00_image006.jpg

      Table 1. Experimental targets and geophysical/geological methods which provide constraints. The experimental targets were used to discriminate among the project hypotheses and testable models (Figure 2). The methods provide observations which define how the experimental targets are applicable within South Island. In most cases an individual method can address several experimental targets.

      c00_image007.jpgc00_image008.jpg

      Obtaining these images and physical property information required a multidisciplinary approach (Table 1). Individual targets needed information provided by different methods in order to produce well-constrained or well-imaged geometries and attributes. The core SIGHT project carried out experiments which included passive seismology, land refraction and double-sided seismic onshore-offshore profiling plus marine MCS profiling, high resolution seismic reflection profiling, magnetotellurics and petrophysical sampling. Additional experiments were performed including shallow seismics and gravity, regional geodetics, and numerous geological studies. Descriptions of these field efforts and their results are summarized in other chapters in this volume [e.g., Davey et al., this volume; Savage et al., this volume; Stern et al., this volume] as well as in the numerous project publications.

      THE SIGHT PROJECT AND GREATER SOUTH ISLAND OROGEN PROJECT

      SIGHT, the South Island Geophysical Transect, refers to a range of field observation projects that were broadly focused on two transects across mid South Island in the period 1995-98 (Plate 3B). The main focus was active source seismic work but SIGHT also included magnetotellurics and petrophysical work. A passive seismic experiment - Southern Alps Passive Seismic Experiment (SAPSE) ran in parallel with SIGHT [Leitner et al., 2001]. Data from both SAPSE and SIGHT were combined to build a tomographic image of the crust beneath the Southern Alps [Eberhart-Phillips and Bannister, 2002]. Although these NSF-NZ Science Foundation—funded projects were mainly focused on geophysical data acquisition, additional studies in structural geology, geodesy and geodynamic modeling ran in parallel during the decade 1995–2005. Thus the term South Island Orogen Project is used to encompass all these projects. This book summarizes the results of the larger set of research under the South Island Orogen Project including the core SIGHT-SAPSE projects.

      Primary participants on the South Island Orogen Project came from three New Zealand Institutions (Victoria University of Wellington, Otago University and GNS Science) and eight US institutions (U. Southern California, U. of California/Berkeley, MIT, San Diego State U., SUNY, U. of Utah, U. of Wisconsin, and U. of Wyoming). In addition there are some 25 outer-circle participants from other institutions. Fifteen students and postdocs completed studies based on just the SIGHT/SAPSE projects. Funding came from one major NSF grant and several PGST grants from the New Zealand Science Foundation.

      Previous Studies of Orogens

      Prior to the period of the SIGHT experiment, seismic investigations of compressional orogens had been carried out in the Pyrenees [Choukrone and team, 1989], the European Alps [Pfiffner et al., 1990], the Wind River Mountains [Smithson et al., 1979] and in much lower and now eroded mountain chains like the Appalachians [Cook et al., 1979] and the Grenville Front [Green et al., 1988] and the Canadian Cordillera [Cook and Varsek, 1994]. These earlier studies focused on the geometries of thick and thin-skinned thrusting that occur at orogenic belts, the nature and thickness of the crust, and how regional isostatic compensation occurs. SIGHT focused on a relatively simple and youthful orogen with the intent of providing an important addition to these previous studies, which are in currently less active environments. At the time of SIGHT, knowledge of the geology of South Island was well known but that of the tectonics only moderately known with a distinct lack of knowledge of deeper structure and how deformation at the plate boundary was being accommodated.

      WHAT WAS LEARNT?

      Outcomes of the projects are many and varied and went well beyond that signaled in the original proposal. What follows are some of the outcomes that link to the key questions listed above. In-depth presentations of these outcomes are provided in the papers within this volume.

      Field Methods

      From an operational point of view one of the main successes of SIGHT was to demonstrate the power and efficiency of the double-sided onshore-offshore seismic exploration method to continental islands like South Island. Few global localities offer such a favorable setting for onshore-offshore exploration from both sides of a continental island. Specifically, the combination of a relatively unpopulated continental island, an island wide enough (160–200 km) to generate all crustal seismic phases from onshore shots, yet narrow enough that ship-generated air-gun waves could be detected with onshore seismic detectors from coast to coast (Plate 3B), and offshore waters where a seismic ship can operate without restriction. Thus one of the most distinctive outcomes of SIGHT was the acquisition of top quality crustal seismic data sets that, for example, gave rise to 600 km-long supergathers [Okaya et al., 2002, 2003].

      Crustal Structure

      Crustal thickness. The most dominant structural feature discovered by SIGHT is the asymmetric crustal thickening of South Island that appears to be concentrated in the Pacific plate (eastern South Island) and is strongly asymmetric (Plate 4) [Kleffmann et al., 1998; Scherwath et al., 2003; van Avendonk et al., 2004]. Maximum crustal thickness is 44 ± 1.5 km beneath the highest portion of the Alps. This represents ~17 km of crustal thickening from both the east and west coast where well resolved refraction and reflection data put the Moho at 27 ± 1 km (Plate 4a and b).

      On the third transect down eastern South Island (Plate 4c) a 600 km-long multichannel seismic and wide-angle seismic reflection image was created [Godfrey et al., 2001]. This profile highlighted the contrasting seismic fabric and thickness of the Eastern and Western Provinces [Mortimer, 2004]: the former being about 27 km thick and Permian-Cretaceous in age, and the latter 35 km thick and Paleozoic-Mesozoic in age (Plate 3B) [Davey, 2005]. The Eastern Province is the thin greywacke-schist crust that overlies a reflective lower oceanic crust and forms most of the crust of New Zealand. The Western Province is in effect a fragment of Gondwana continental crust that separated during the opening of the Tasman Sea [Mortimer, 2004].

      On Transect 3 a serendipitous find was the deep crustal image of the mid-Miocene Dunedin volcano complex [Godfrey et al., 2001]. Beneath the complex a domed area of under-plating is interpreted near the Moho, and seismic velocities in both the crust and mantle are reduced by about 10–15%. Thus even though this volcano has been dormant for ~12 my there is still evidence of partial melts and/or volatiles in the upper mantle and lower crust.

      Decollement surface beneath the Southern Alps. Central to many of the key questions listed above is the issue of how and where the mantle and crust separate beneath central South Island. A decollement at a depth between 35 and 15 km has been imaged and interpreted (Figure 3). A combination of wide-angle and migrated, high-resolution seismic reflection methods are used to show that the crust beneath the Southern Alps is split by this zone of broad and strong reflectivity (Figure 3). Below the decollement surface a crustal root has developed with rocks of seismic velocity 6.8 km/s, which are interpreted to be the oceanic crust on which the greywacke schists were deposited [Scherwath et al., 2003]. Above the decollement the rocks are all of seismic velocity <6.3 km/s and are interpreted to be the greywacke–schist rocks (Plate 4). Interestingly, the lower crust delaminates and moves downward with the mantle lithosphere rather than attaching itself to the upper crust. It is unclear if this behavior is peculiar to just this orogen, or it is a more general phenomenon. If the latter, there are important implications for models of mantle instability, lithospheric detachments and continental evolution. Specifically, it is unclear of the role that the lower crust plays in mantle detachments: i.e., does it fully participate in a detachment [Schott and Schmeling, 1998] or is the buoyancy of even lower continental crust just too high to overcome [Schott and Schmeling, 1998; Molnar and Houseman, 2004]?

      Flexural rigidity and strength estimates across the orogen. To the west of the Southern Alps the Australian plate is deformed by flexural bending under the load of the crust of the Pacific plate, which overthrusts the Australian plate at the Alpine fault [Harrison, 1999]. This bending can be tracked ~150 km west of the Alpine fault and implies an effective elastic thickness of 15 ± 5 km for the edge of the Australian plate. Beneath the Southern Alps, however, the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere is required to be reduced almost to zero. This latter result is based on an analysis of deformation of the Moho on Transect 1, assuming that prior to loading of the Southern Alps the Moho was horizontal [Stern et al., 2002], and is in keeping with flexural rigidities estimated for other collisional mountain ranges of the world [Stewart and Watts, 1997].

      Plate 4. Crustal structure images along three SIGHT transects. (A) Transect 1 velocity structure [after van Avendonk et al., 2004; see Stern et al., this volume]. 5× vertical exaggeration. Low velocity zone in crust beneath Southern Alps in the hanging wall of the Alpine fault. (B) Transect 2 velocity structure [after Scherwath et al., 2003; see Stern et al., this volume]. 5x vertical exaggeration. Velocity structure similar to Transect 1, but with a deeper root of the Southern Alps. (C) Transect 3 velocity structure [from Godfrey et al., 2001]. Underneath this seismic velocity structure is a line drawing of the marine seismic reflection profile along this transect.

      c00_image009.jpg

      Figure 3. Migrated version of the western portion of the SIGHT seismic reflection profile. Superimposed on the migrated section are seismic velocity contours, earthquake locations. Interpreted regions of dewatering, shearing and high fluid pressure are shown [Okaya et al., 2007].

      c00_image010.jpg

      The Alpine Fault zone. From the outset one of the key foci of the South Island Orogen project was the detailed structure of the Alpine fault zone, in particular, the search for geophysical properties from which we could learn about fault zone dynamics. Four different sub-disciplines have combined to contribute to this goal: structural geology, magnetotellurics, active source seismology and earthquake seismology. At depth the Alpine fault is most strongly manifested as a broad, southeast-dipping zone seen with electrical and seismic means (Plate 4 and Figure 3). It is characterized at lower crustal depths by seismic P-wave speeds that are 10% less than normal and electrical resistivities two orders of magnitude less than normal [see Jiracek et al., this volume]. Combined, these observations suggest the presence of interconnected fluid and high fluid pressure [Stern et al., 2001; Wannamaker et al., 2002].

      Mantle Structure

      Thickened mantle lithosphere. Anomalous P-wave delays of up to 1 s were recorded for teleseismic ray-paths that have passed through the upper mantle beneath the Southern Alps [Stern et al., 2000]. A high speed, and hence relative high-density, body is inferred directly beneath the root of the Southern Alps and with sides that are within 15 degrees of vertical. Because of the shape, dimensions (100 km deep, 80 km wide) and location of the anomalous body it is interpreted to be uniformly thickened mantle lithosphere [Stern et al., 2000] rather than subducted lithosphere as originally proposed by, for example, Wellman [1979]. This high speed anomaly in the mantle is also evident in a regional tomography analysis [Kohler and Eberhart-Phillips, 2002].

      Mantle deformation and the crustal root. A load in addition to topography is required to maintain the crustal root. The average topography in the central Alps is only 1600 m [Koons et al., 1993] yet the observed root has an amplitude of about 17 km [Scherwath et al., 2003]. Given a ~5:1 ratio of root to topography amplitude [Fowler, 1995], assuming local isostatic equilibrium, the Southern Alps root is nearly twice as large to that needed to just support topography. But in cross-sectional form the mass excess of the thickened mantle is similar in magnitude to that of surface topography. Together, these excess masses balance the negative buoyancy of the crustal root beneath the Southern Alps [Stern et al., 2002]. Equal thickening of both lower crustal (7 km/s) and lower mid-crustal (6.1 km/s) rocks contributes to the root [Scherwath et al., 2003].

      Anisotropy and mantle deformation. Seismic anisotropy of crustal and mantle rocks is a major feature of the orogen (Figure 4). Strong shear-wave splitting in the mantle (SKS splitting) was identified at an early stage in the project [Klosko et al., 1999] and have stimulated a variety of tectonic interpretations [Molnar et al., 1999; Little et al., 2002; Moore et al., 2002; Baldock and Stern, 2005]. Because of the excellent coverage of the onshore-offshore shooting upper mantle (Pn) anisotropy was also measured with active source methods [Scherwath et al., 2002; Baldock and Stern, 2005]. The combination of SKS splitting and Pn anisotropy provides a powerful constraint on where the anisotropy and shearing in the mantle occurs.

      All interpretations include an element of distributed deformation in the mantle lithosphere to account for the observed anisotropy. But arguably the most contentious issue faced by the project is in the second part of the first key question listed above: how is the plate boundary expressed in the mantle? While evidence from seismic anisotropy and P-wave delay calls for distributed deformation in the mantle lithosphere rather than brittle faulting [Molnar et al., 1999], the lateral extent of the mantle deformation is difficult to assess. Although measurements of anisotropy suggest that the deformation is at least as wide as South Island and even beyond [Scherwath et al., 2002], this result is predicated on the assumption that the anisotropy is fresh and not inherited from a previous deformation episode. Modeling studies, on the other hand, are more comfortable with deformation in the mantle not extending beyond a width of 100 km [Ellis et al., 2006]. This clearly is still an important issue as it bears on some fundamental issues of rock mechanics such as the temperature and pressure conditions under which dynamic recrystallization of olivine can occur [Scherwath et al., 2002].

      Figure 4. Map of shear wave splitting (anisotropy) measurements in New Zealand. Bars represent measurements of shear wave splitting. Direction of shear wave splitting is sub-parallel to the Pacific-Australian plate boundary. [From Savage et al., this volume].

      c00_image011.jpg

      Plate 5. Integration of geological and geophysical results from SIGHT/SAPSE and the South Island Orogen Project. (a) block model of transpression along the Alpine fault [from Cox and Sutherland, this volume]. The Pacific plate upper and middle crust is exhumed along the Alpine fault zone. The lower crust accumulates in the root of the Southern Alps. Exhumation and climate-driven erosion laterally offsets the Southern Alps mountains from its root. (b) Crust-mantle structure inferred from SIGHT/SAPSE geophysical data [from Stern et al., this volume]. A relatively cold, dense, and faster seismic wavespeed body is located under western South Island; the Southern Alps root is dynamically pulled downward by this mantle feature.

      c00_image012.jpg

      Seismic anisotropy in crustal rocks is not so well defined. Laboratory measurements on schist that form the bulk of the Pacific plate crustal rocks exhibit strong material-derived anisotropy [Okaya, et al., 1995; Christensen and Okaya, this volume]. But the limited field measurements made orthogonally at a crustal scale indicate similar velocities and hence no seismically observed anisotropy signals [Pulford et al., 2003].

      Integrated View of the Plate Boundary

      Plate 5 summarizes some plate boundary processes in central South Island. Relative plate motion is both dextral strike-slip movement along the Alpine fault (Australian plate to the north with respect to the Pacific plate), and convergent. The ratio of strike-slip to convergence is ~3.5:1. The Pacific upper and middle crust is exhumed along the Alpine fault or via backthrusts east of the fault; these mechanisms form the Southern Alps and its foothills. Lithospheric mantle appears to thicken uniformly beneath the Southern Alps, although it is not clear if it is Pacific or Australian plate mantle that is participating in the thickening. The thickened mantle is colder and hence denser than the surrounding asthenosphere and thus able to dynamically pull downward the overlying crust. This loading from the thickened mantle helps maintain a crustal root which is both laterally offset from the Southern Alps and excessively thick with respect to surface topography.

      As the Pacific plate converges towards the plate boundary its lower crust accumulates into this drawn-down root. The overlying middle crust (semischists to schists) also deepens and undergoes metamorphic processes, which results in the release of fluids. These fluids aid in the backshear stair-step faulting which facilitates exhumation up the Alpine fault. These fluids that are transported along the fault produce the magnetotelluric anomaly and lower seismic velocities observed within the plate boundary fault zone. Exhumation rates are large but are balanced by climate-driven rapid erosion that keeps the height of the Southern Alps at modest levels.

      SUMMARY

      Benchmarks of success of large international projects come in many forms. Apart from the research that is summarized in this volume, in addition to papers published previously, there are two other measures of importance. First there is the manner in which a project involves the upcoming generation of earth scientists. Because all aspects of the South Island Orogen Project involved making new observations in the field; graduate students therefore formed the backbone of the field efforts. At least twenty graduate degrees have been granted, from both New Zealand and United States universities, linked to the South Island project with the first in 1995 and the most recent in 2007. The other mark of success is the degree to which this project has spawned new initiatives and research programs. In this regard the South Island Orogen Project has been highly successful. Since the results from the major data sets first started to appear at conferences, a plethora of geodynamical modeling studies that depend on these data have appeared [Beaumont et al., 1996; Batt and Braun, 1999; Gerbault et al., 2002; Little et al., 2002; Ellis et al., 2006; Scherwath et al., 2006]. The focus of these studies is the kinematics and dynamics of continental tectonics. A new US-NZ GPS program to measure the vertical surface uplift rate of the Southern Alps began in 2000 [Beavan et al., 2004]. Several new geophysical follow up projects are currently in the pipeline including an offshore study of SKS splitting using ocean-bottom broad-band seismographs, and a bore-hole seismograph array to search for microearth-quakes in the Alpine fault zone.

      New campaigns have been launched within the Alpine fault and its northward transition to subduction based on the success of SIGHT initial magnetotelluric work. Because of SIGHT, new projects for seismic profiling of other continental islands have been conducted and proposed. Seismic imaging studies in New Zealand’s North Island recently were carried out [Stratford and Stern, 2006; Henrys et al., 2006]. Double-sided onshore-offshore profiling patterned after SIGHT is scheduled to take place in Taiwan as part of a Taiwan-USA collaborative project. Within New Zealand students who gained field experience with SIGHT have moved into the local oil industry, where they have now applied onshore-offshore seismic methods to explore for difficult targets beneath or adjacent to shore lines.

      Finally, our search to understand the dynamics of major continental transform faults has received a boost from the combined South Island Orogen Project. As this book goes to press a workshop will be held to examine the possibility of bringing the International Drilling Commission to New Zealand to drill the Alpine fault to a depth of ~5 km. Data from the South Island Orogen Project are central to formulate a science plan for the proposed drilling program. For example, because we can now show that the Alpine fault dips at a moderate angle into the crust, unlike at SAFOD in California [Hickman et al., 2004] where costly directional drilling was required, deep drilling here will only have to deal with a vertical hole in order to intersect the Alpine plate boundary fault at depth.

      Acknowledgements. Funding for the core SIGHT/SAPSE collaborations were provided by the New Zealand Foundation for Research Science and Technology, GNS Science, Victoria University of Wellington, and the U.S. National Science Foundation Continental Dynamics program (grants EAR-9219496 and EAR-9418530). Additional U.S. grants were provided by NSF Continental Dynamics (EAR-9418343 and EAR-9725883). Additional New Zealand support was provided by PGST and the Marsden Fund. We thank Belinda Smith Lyttle who used the N.Z. QMAP geological GIS database in order to make the maps of South Island (including the oversized versions).

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      S. Cox, GNS Science, Dunedin, New Zealand.

      F. Davey and S. Henrys, GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand.

      D. Okaya, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.

      T. Stern, School of Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.

      SECTION I

      Regional Framework of Pacific/Indo-Australian Plate Boundary

      Regional Geological Framework of South Island, New Zealand, and its Significance for Understanding the Active Plate Boundary

      Simon C. Cox

      GNS Science, Dunedin, New Zealand

      Rupert Sutherland

      GNS Science, Avalon, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

      New Zealand basement is composed of distinct volcano-sedimentary terranes, intruded by batholiths and overprinted by metamorphism, that were accreted to the Pacific margin of Gondwana during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. Extension and sea floor spreading during the Cretaceous and Paleogene thinned and isolated a large fragment of Gondwana, most of which still remains submerged. A sedimentary section comprising rifted (oldest), passive and convergent (youngest) margin episodes was deposited unconformably on basement, changing locally in character as the Australian-Pacific plate boundary developed during the Neogene. Terranes were offset by up to 470 km on the Alpine Fault, bent dextrally by distributed deformation, and now constrain the maximum plate motion to be around 850 km. Displacement of the basal unconformity (Waipounamu erosion surface) and laterally offset Tertiary sediments constrain long-term plate boundary deformation. New Zealand’s landscape evolved during the Pleistocene, and has been profoundly affected by asymmetric rainfall and erosion. This has affected geomorphology, glaciation and glacial cycles, uplift, exhumation and rock distribution across the Southern Alps, controlled the first order shape of the orogen, and probably the distribution of deformation. Pleistocene glacial cycles shaped the landscape and left a fragmentary record of moraines, outwash surfaces, alluvial terraces and fans. Fluvio-glacial landforms have been offset by active faults and constrain the rate and location of much late Quaternary deformation,

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