Romantic nationalism

One of the core concepts in 19th c. Frisian cultural/romantic nationalism was the link between 'Frisian' and 'Freedom (liberty)', as f.i. in Frysk en Frij ('Frisian and free'). The concept refers to the High and Late Middle Ages, in which Frisians had come to characterise their territory in terms of an ideology of political liberty. Later Frisian historiography almost automatically took the continuity of the concept for granted. However, the gist of this article, informed by the reading of the vast 19th c. literature on the topic, is that precisely this paired concept functioned as the paradoxical ultimate legitimation of the subjugated position of Fryslân within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The rationale behind this was that ‘Frisian freedom’ cannot be enjoyed without respect for the (Dutch) law.

In the memoir literature developed in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the Manuscript of Dvůr Králové and the Manuscript of Zelená Hora represented unique figures of memory as works of art and attacked and defended symbols of the historical roots of the Czech nation. In memoirs, in particular by Czech writers and participants in the disputes over the manuscripts, they thus appeared in at least three forms: as a means of national initiation; as a subject of defence that integrated the nation (actually also in the contrasting reflections of some German-Czech authors); finally, after T. G. Masaryk’s revelation of their origin, as the basis of the new, critical identity of the Czech nation. Apart from the factual value of these memoirs in comparison with the press, correspondence and other sources, especially concerning private information, attention should also be paid to conflicts between individual approaches to the two manuscripts and their multilayered identities as well as narrative procedures as an instrument to overcome associated conflict points of the past.

This paper (print-published as a pamphlet by NISE (Antwerp, www.nise.edu) periodizes Romantic Nationalism in the long 19th century and traces its post-1914 afterlife in "banal nationalism". Conversely, it argues that we can understand many instances of banal nationalism as the lingering residue of Romantic nationalism.

Hedayat was born in the wake of the Constitutional Revolution at the turn of the Twentieth century which was accompanied by a literary revolution. Later disillusionment with that Constitutional Revolution led to the rise of romantic nationalism to which Hedayat subscribed. Initiated by Jamalzadeh's seminal work, from the 1930s he began to write fiction as well as  non-fiction, his greatest masterpiece being The Blind Owl . There were other modern fiction writers  including his friend Bozorg Alavi, as well as many such as Hosseinqoli Mosta'an  who did not write for the elite . Ahmad Kasravi was not a fiction writer but a modern scholar and public intellectual with strong views which made him many enemies. After the abdication of Reza Shah and formation of the Tudeh party, Hedayat became its fellow traveller but later revolted against it for political as well as literary reasons. Being critical of the political, literary and religious establishments, his break with the Tudeh party led to his total isolation. He tried to emigrate to Europe but he did not succeed  and so, killed himself in Paris in 1951.

میرزا آقاخان کرمانی، از عجایب روزگار و از نوابغ همه تاریخ ایران زمین است. این را با توجه به ژرفا و پختگی نوشتارهای او می‌توان فهمید. حال اگر بدانیم که او در دوران ناصری می‌زیست و اجل مهلت‌ش نداد که حتا انقلاب مشروطیت را به چشم ببیند -درحالیکه شاید نخستین شهید جنبش مشروطه باشد - و اینکه تنها چهل و چهار سال عمر کرد، آنگاه جمله نخست، برایمان مبالغه‌آمیز جلوه نمی‌‌‌کند.
او را می‌توان از پدران ناسیونالیسم نوین ایران دانست. اگرچه خود او در این مورد زیر تاثیر میرزا فتحعلی آخوندزاده قرار داشت. ولی چیرگی بیشتر او بر دانش روز و تلاش فزون‌ترش در حوزه فلسفه و علوم اجتماعی، باعث می‌شود تا او را بنیادگزار اندیشه ملی در ایران نوین بدانیم. نگاه به اندیشمندان مطرح همدوره‌ی او همچون سید جمال‌الدین اسدآبادی که امت‌گرایی اسلامی (ناسیونالیسم اسلامی) را مطرح می‌کرد، یا طالبوف و میرزا ملکم‌خان که شجاعت و پیش‌گامی او را نداشتند، به خوبی ممتازی و برتری میرزا آقاخان را نمایان می‌کند.

This introduction to a volume of mostly-translated excerpts from early Beowulf scholarship gives an overview of reactions to the poem in Germany, Scandinavia and Britain from its first mention in 1705 to 1935 - at which point Tolkien's famous essay is generally thought to have begun a new era. The poem's involvement with European politics is a major theme.

This article looks at J.M. Kemble's early editions and translation of Beowulf, noting his abrupt changes of opinion and editorial decisions. These are seen as results of Kemble's partisan attitude to the clash between 19th-century Denmark and Germany over Schleswig-Holstein, Kemble being a passionate supporter of the German side.

SYMPOSIUM: LANDSCAPES OF SOCIALISM: ROMANTIC ALTERNATIVES TO SOVIET ENLIGHTENMENT

1. Serguei Alex Oushakine
Sotzromantizm and Its Theaters of Life: Editor's Introduction

2. Fabien Bellat
An Uneasy Metamorphosis: The Afterlife of Constructivism in Stalinist Gardens

3. Juliana Maxim
Building the Collective: Theories of the Archaic in Socialist Modernism, Romania circa 1958

4. Mari Laanemets
In Search of a Humane Environment: Environment, Identity, and Design in the 1960s–70s

5. Oliver Sukrow
Subversive Landscapes: The Symbolic Representation of Socialist Landscapes in the Visual Arts of the German Democratic Republic

6. Alexey Golubev
“A Wonderful Song of Wood”: Heritage Architecture and the Search for Historical Authenticity in North Russia

7. Elena Gapova
“The Land under the White Wings”: The Romantic Landscaping of Socialist Belarus

The contents of the first issue of volume 29 of Rethinking Marxism are reflections on the relation between space and society. They all explore how the imaginations of particular historical eras take shape in space. In that spirit, we start the volume with a symposium, “Landscapes of Socialism: Romantic Alternatives to Soviet Enlightenment,” edited by Serguei A. Oushakine, on architecture, art, and landscape design in former socialist countries, and exploring the relation between these historical forms and transformations in society.

In “Sotzromantizm and Its Theaters of Life,” Serguei A. Oushakine contextualizes the contributions to the symposium. He starts his narrative with a reference to a visionary of Soviet architecture, to El Lissitzky’s manifesto, wherein the leading constructivist set out the spatial imagination of suprematism, which would shape the new world of socialism. In this utterly radical imagining, the reshaping of the world would take place through the “rhythmic” dissection of space and time into meaningfully organized units, which would move together with the transformation of the tools of representation, resulting in what Lissitzky named a “new theater of life.”

Oushakine argues that the utopian radicalism of the constructivists remained—despite the industrialization embarked on in 1928—with leading architects such as Moisei Ginzburg and Mikhail Barshch designing Moscow as a “green city” that would be transformed into a huge park; this would be realized in an economical way with a view to solving the problems of the big city, such as dense traffic.

The new imagination represented both a desire for a radical break with and erasure of the past and also a refusal to inherit. The contributions to the symposium, argues Oushakine, develop more critical and complex stories of this “historical nihilism” of Soviet modernity. Each points to how this original refusal to claim history gave way to historicizing and historicist perspectives.

These disparate ways of alluding to the past are aggregated under the name of Sotzromantizm, in which the spatial vision of early Soviet modernity synthesized with influences of the past, a seminal reference being made by Anna Elistratova in 1957 when the author questioned Socialist realism, pointing at the romantic traditions as possible sources of inspiration. Sotzromantizm, argues Oushakine, flowed in the works of architects, artists, and writers in diverse forms, creating a new “politico-poetical theater of life” and along the way providing alternatives to the rationalism of Soviet Enlightenment.

This paper examines an Icelandic invented
tradition that has come to play a central role in Icelandic National
Day ceremonies at home and abroad. Part of the movement to “create”
Icelandic culture in the late nineteenth century, the figure of
the “Mountain Woman” dressed in Icelandic national costume, who
nowadays
gives a speech every year on the Icelandic National Day
(17th June), has her origin in 19th century romantic poetry as an
image for Iceland (comparable to England’s Brittania and France’s
Liberté). However, in visual terms, she took shape as an image in the
frontispiece of the first English translation of Jón Árnason’s Icelandic
Folk Legends, and as a flag-waving elf-woman in Indriði Einarsson’s
national drama, New Year’s Eve (end of the 1860s). As time has
gone on, this figure has maintained her role in annual National Day
ceremonies, but also gained new aspects. For example, when Vigdís
Finnbogadóttir became Iceland’s first female president, it is clear
that she, directly or indirectly, played on the image.

The Judeo-Christian concept of Messianism has been a shaping influence on modern European thought. This chapter focuses on its permutations within German intellectual and political history: in philosophers from Hegel to Heidegger, poets from Hoelderlin to Schumann, political thinkers from Fichte to Arthur Moeller van den Bruck and even Adolf Hitler, and (in contrasting ways) Jewish thinkers such as Karl Kraus and Walter Benjamin. The chapter both shapes a narrative of appropriations of 'Messianism' in modern Germany and offers necessary tools for the further study of this concept within other areas of modern European thought.

V. U. Hammershaimb (1819-1909)
In every nation on earth we will find people
of such preeminent importance that summarizing
their lives and their stupendous work
presents us with difficulties, not to mention
the changes they effected for their native
country and its people.

Illiberal Democracy in Indonesia charts the origins and development of organicist ideologies in Indonesia from the early 20th century to the present. In doing so, it provides a background to the theories and ideology that informed organicist thought, traces key themes in Indonesian history, examines the Soeharto regime and his ‘New Order’ in detail, and looks at contemporary Indonesia to question the possibility of past ideologies making a resurgence in the country.

Beginning with an exploration of the origins of the theory of the organic state in Europe, this book explores how this influenced many young Indonesian scholars and ‘secular’ nationalists. It also looks in detail at the case of Japan, and identifies the parallels between the process by which Japanese and Indonesian nationalist scholars drew on European romantic organicist ideas to forge anti-Western national identities and ideologies. The book then turns to Indonesia's tumultuous history from the revolution to 1965, the rise of Soeharto, and how his regime used organicist ideology, together with law and terror, to shape the political landscape and consolidate control. In turn, it shows how the social and economic changes wrought by the government's policies, such as the rise of a cosmopolitan middle class and a rapidly growing urban proletariat, led to the failure of the corporatist political infrastructure and the eventual collapse of the New Order in 1998. Finally, the epilogue surveys the post Soeharto years to 2014, and how growing disquiet about the inability of the government to contain religious intolerance, violence and corruption has led to an increased readiness to re-embrace not only more authoritarian styles of rule but also ideological formulas from the past.

The interwar period in Europe marks a tendency towards authoritarian leaders in politics as well as the classicizing practices of the visual arts. However, the extent and modality of both tendencies vary from state to state: mapping differences and similarities leads towards greater understanding of each national history. The particularity of Latvian art life is a comparatively substantial use of folklore motifs and representation of pagan mythology, going hand in hand with overall ethnolinguistic nationalism agenda and related state cultural policy. Despite the coexistence of various artistic styles, in regard to content and intentions of artworks, the interwar period can be characterized by the turn from National Romanticism to Romantic Nationalism. The historical outline and theoretical discussion of folklore representations are illustrated by three case studies, analysing the biographies, ideas, and works of Latvian artists Ansis Cīrulis, Jēkabs Bīne, and Niklāvs Strunke.

The forged Dvůr Králové and Zelená Hora manuscripts are not only an unresolved mystery of fabrication, but they were also the most published, promoted and translated Czech literary works in the period between their discovery in 1817 and their criticism by T. G. Masaryk and his colleagues in 1886 and one of the leading phenomenons of Czech Romantic nationalism. Moreover, mystifications, including such historical-style hoaxes, are to this day one of the characteristic and currently noteworthy phenomena of modern Czech culture. How has Czech society come to terms with the Manuscripts over the last two
hundred years and in what ways are they present in it to this day? Are they a purely Czech historical episode, or do they have their European counterparts? And if so, what were their fates?

Jewish rights in the Balkans constituted a significant concern for Western European Jewish elites in the nineteenth century, in particular for the Alliance Israélite Universelle. For the organisation, defending these rights was a duty not only for France but for Europe as a whole. International advocacy shaped the self-understanding of French Jewish political leaders as Europeans. However, their legacy was ambiguous: if Jewish activists in the Balkans adopted many of their political strategies, they increasingly questioned French Jewish activists’ idealised vision of Europe.

The Manuscripts of Dvůr Králové and Zelená Hora represent not only a in detail unresolved mystery, but in the period between 1817 and 1886 they were the most prized, published and translated Czech literary works. The essay deals with their forgotten period functions for the Czech national building in 19th and 20th century Europe. How did the Czech society respond to the Manuscripts and how are they present in recent hoaxes? Are they a purely Czech historical episode, or do they have European links and counterparts?

In the 14th and 15th centuries St Erik became the national saint of the kingdom of Sweden. This era of his cult was - more or less - over after the Swedish Reformation during the 16th century. However, 19th-century National Romanticism re-discovered St Erik as a national figure. As such he featured less obvious than other "heros" of the Swedish Middle Ages like Birger Jarl or Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson. Yet, the paper argues, a number of traces can be found which give evidence of strong national feelings of certain circles of Swedish society towards St Erik. Those traces include the controversy over the source-critical thesis on St Erik by Knut Stjerna, the role of the saint in the restauration of the cathedral of Uppsala and in the decoration of the Stadhus of Stockholm.

As humanity adjusts to globalization it is not moving toward the end of history but going into reverse. The complex meta-narratives of post-modernism and consumerism have led to a sense of overcrowding and the ‘blood and soil’ aesthetics of Radical and Romantic Nationalism seem like a crude and often brutal attempt to alleviate this burden and simplify these narratives.  'Let's Make The Past Great Again' explores the idea that the past has become another modern consumable and a powerful rhetorical device and stock option for 'Nostalgia Nationalists' like Donald Trump and UKIP's Nigel Farage. The article also considers the phenomenon in light of Umberto Eco's 14-point definition of 'Eternal fascism', fundamentalism, meta-modernism, social media, conspiracy theory, extremism and in the context of the various 'justice narratives' directed at voters in the West.

Winning the justice narrative features as prominently in the tropes and pledges of Trump and Farage, as it does it in the books found in Bin Laden’s compound. Each of them tells a story of righting wrongs and restoring balances. The work of the Conspiracy Theorist is to negotiate a path through to a promised land where the air is clean and the ground more giving.

This paper is a compact analysis of the three phases of the expressionism in the Polish art.
Scholars distinguish three phases of expressionism in Poland: an anticipated symbolic art nou-veau about 1900; an explicitly programmatic expressionism, beginning near the end of the First World  War  and  lasting  only  three  to  four  years;  and  a  third,  historical,  late  expressionism  in  the 1930s. The first includes the work of artists such as Mikołaj Konstanty Czurlanis (Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis), Wojciech Weiss (inspired by Edvard Munch), and Stanisław Wyspiański Witkacy (compared to James Ensor) and writings by Stanisław Przybyszewski, Wacław Berent, and Tadeusz Miciński. Late expressionism of the 1920s and 1930s was identified with the visual and literary œuvre of Bruno Schulz and the poetry of the Czartak group.8 These two nonhis-torical phases of implicit expressionism were both more highly valued by Polish art historians than the third phase of expressionism, which ran parallel to the second generation in Germany.9Expressive and expressionist tendencies in Polish art are present still in contemporary art, in part as a programmatic neoexpressionism in the work of artists inspired by Bunt, in part as a movement similar to the Neue Wilde (New Wild Artists) in Germany of the 1980s and later

Short bio of Mariano José de Larra, (Fígaro), Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe, vol. 1, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2018, pp. 405-406. ISBN 9789462981188

This 2-volume book is conceived as a "paper portal" to be used in conjunction with the online version at <ernie.uva.nl>.  Digital and print version complement each other.

The Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism (ERNiE) "documents the presence and impact of nationalized cultural consciousness in European nationalism. It tracks how intellectuals, historians, philologists, novelists, poets, painters, folklorists, and
composers, in an intensely collaborative transnational network, articulated the national identities and aspirations that would go on to determine European history and politics, with effects that are still felt today" (ERNiE Flyer).

In the first part of my paper, I explore the numerous Viking Age and medieval examples of people and groups of people by whom the Swedish Romantic Nationalists of the 19th and early 20th centuries ventured to illustrate the Swedish “Volksgeist”. The romantic (mental and actual) pictures of these people were meant to re-invoke the pride of past times and were used to create works of literature, art, and architecture which represent the Swedish variation of the Europe-wide movement of Romantic Nationalism. The examples of people used for this purpose include groups like the Vikings and the free Swedish farmers (skattebonde) as well as a number of outstanding characters like Birger Jarl and Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson.

In the second part of my paper, I exemplify these general statements using the cases of Gustav Vasa and the Swedish royal saint St Erik. While the first was among the most prominent and most actively promoted medieval heroes of Swedish Romantic Nationalism, the importance of the latter is less obvious at first sight.

This article analyzes the relationship between epic, irony and comedy in Ismail Kadare’s 1981 novel Dosja H. (The File on H.), loosely based on the real-life attempts to discover the origins of Homeric epic. Using the theories of Lukács and Bakhtin, the article argues that Kadare’s novel is not merely a droll satire of intrigue and small-town mores in 1930’s Albania, but, far more, an inquiry into the function of literature in the age of philology and a dramatization of the birth of the novel out of the death of the epic and the world to which it belongs.

The Comparative Literature Department and The Program in Judaic Studies at Yale University will be hosting an international conference on The Rise of Nationalism and the Nineteenth-Century Jewish Literary Imagination.

The gathering will be held on April 12 & 13, 2015.     

The conference explores the Jewish literary imagination against the background of nineteenth-century ethnic and nationalist movements and the emergence of Jews as political agents.  It will address the way new literary products, in both content and form, redefined Jewish collective identity. It hopes to shed light on how literary genres and mediums contributed to the emergence of new political movements and ideologies, such as, Zionism and Socialism. More generally, it will focus on the historical sources and ideas privileged by nationalist discourses and the manner in which nationalism redefined the nature of Judaism’s religious and cultural history. Finally, it will attempt to understand the way nationalist discourses borrowed tropes and narratives from traditionally marked religious literary genres, such as biblical literature, rabbinic commentaries, legal codes and philosophical treatise.

The article investigates the uses of the motif of the Warrior Women in János Arany’s epic poetry. The author of the article claims that the motif of the Warrior Women in Arany’s poetical discourse stemmed from the romantic literary tradition of the 1820–1830s. Furthermore, she argues that an old Scottish ballad, purportedly known by János Arany, provided the pattern that had been imitated by the Hungarian poet. Hence, the romantic image of the Hungarian Warrior Woman has become a highly symbolic and propagandistic content in Arany’s poetry during the 1850s. It reveals a genuine nineteenth-century endeavour of the nation-building process in order to promote the nation’s ready-to-fight patriotic women as models to be followed.

Although Faroese art historians, prone to methodological nationalism, often see Faroese art as a nationally inspired preoccupation, Faroese art originated by adopting foreign images from travel writers (who visited the Faroes in large numbers, as did landscape artists). In Faroese art landscape painting (usually traced back to the bird-painter Díðrikur á Skarvanesi, 1802–1865) dominates; the one representative of national history painting is J. Waagstein (1879–1949). Waagstein’s mural for the Christian KFUK club building portrays a character from the Faroe Saga, Sigmund Brestisson, proclaiming Christianity (Sigmund Brestisson forkynder Kristendommen paa Færøerne); the image, widely recycled in school textbooks, is still in use. Waagstein was largely self-taught, but on one occasion stressed his debt to “Mrs Heilmann and Miss Taylor”. Flora Heilmann (1872–1944) was the Danish wife of the pastor in Viðareiði, and her American friend Elizabeth Taylor (1856–1932) was a writer on travel; both were painters. Later he attended classes at the National Drawing Teachers’ Academy in Copenhagen, and in 1919 went abroad to study in Copenhagen and Germany. Waagstein’s formative years coincided with the heyday of the national movement on the Faroes.

Fuhr, Michael; Warming, Dagmar (2008). Modern art from the Faroe Islands (Wien; Tórshavn: Leopoldmuseum; Listasavn)

Heinesen, William (1982). Færøsk kunst (Tórshavn: Bókagarður)

Jákupsson, Bárður (2000). Færøernes billedkunst (Tórshavn: Atlantia).



© the author and SPIN. Cite as follows (or as adapted to your stylesheet of choice): Simonsen, Kim, 2019. "Visual arts : Faroese", Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe, ed. Joep Leerssen

(Electronic version; Amsterdam: Study Platform on Interlocking Nationalisms, https://ernie.uva.nl/), article version 1.1.1.2/a, last changed 10-01-2019, consulted 26-02-2020.

This study raises the issue of how late 1810s and early 1820s Polish literature reflects the Czech forged manuscripts, which „as the most prominent fraud in the style of Macpherson’s Songs of Ossian“ (Donald Rayfield) substantially molded 19th and 20th century Czech culture. The generic and typological focus is on Śpiewy historyczne z muzyką i rycinami (Historical songs with music and engravings, 1816) by Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (1758–1841), which preceded the Czech manuscripts, and the edition of Ruska prawda (Russian Truth, 1820, 1822) by the historian of Slavonic law Ignacy Benedykt Rakowiecki, which in opposition to Josef Dobrovský appreciated the pagan  realia in the Zelená Hora manuscript and so had an effect on its Czech reception. In the dynamically transforming Czech and Polish literature of the 1810s, this study identifies a number of common elements based on the case of the manuscripts and Śpiewy historyczne, but it also characterizes the differing cultural and social backgrounds behind the basic differences between the manuscripts and Śpiewy. The Czech manuscripts, created in the tradition of European Ossianism, are highlighted by the study primarily as a unique linguistic and literary achievement in the reconstruction of Czech poetic language in the latter half of the 1810s.

Ode pindarica ao amor da patria, poema do jovem Domingos José Gonçalves de Magalhães, é uma exaltação ao Brasil, uma apologia ao nascente Estado independente, uma declaração de lugar e centralidade. Ensaio sobre a História da Literatura do Brasil é um manifesto e uma chamada aos letrados "patriotas". Gonçalves de Magalhães, nos anos 1830, expressa um, podemos dizer, romantismo emergente em sua visão de mundo, um ímpeto patriótico que, nestes dois escrito de estilos diferentes, deixa escapar as primeiras linhas escriturárias de um projeto de busca pela completude, um preenchimento daquilo que Jacques Derrida chamou de lógica da suplementariedade, um nexo de busca por um a priori que se imagina ser, por um jogo paradoxal de teleologia retroativa, substrato ontológico e natural de um princípio identitário. O princípio nacionalista, especialmente na primeira metade do século XIX no Brasil, delineia uma busca pela constituição de uma cultura distinta, marcadamente uma "alta" cultura distinta, se o Estado agora era governado pelos "seus", caberia aos intelectuais desenhar as fronteiras deste "nós", a literatura e as artes em geral sendo a plataforma que serviria a tal propósito. Desta maneira, a literatura compõe uma evidência destes primeiros passos de uma tarefa, evidentemente disseminada, compartilhada e complexa, da ativa constituição de um Brasil e de brasileiros pela letra escrita. A partir dos textos citados acima refletir-se-á sobre o projeto patriótico de formação nacional estabelecida por Magalhães, sob a perspectiva Derridiana descrita em A farmácia de Platão.

(Open Access) During the first half of the 19th century, important parts of the cultivation of Finnish culture took place in informal societies and networks. Personal relationships (kinship, friendship) were significant, with women often also playing an important role; the context was often that of Swedish-speaking literati, many of whom were engaged in supporting the Finnish cause...

Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb (1819–1909) is remembered as the founding father of the Faroese nation. He came from an elite Faroese family: his father had been the last to hold the ancient function of Bailiff on the Faroe Islands. After Denmark had dissembled the Løgting (local Faroese governing assembly) in 1816, the family’s standing declined, to young Hammershaimb’s chagrin. He studied theology, and became a Lutheran minister, but saw Nordic philology as his true vocation. Influenced by Rasmus Rask’s work on Icelandic and Faroese, Hammershaimb established a modern Faroese orthography on the model of Icelandic. In this he was aided by the leader of the 19th-century Icelandic national movement, Jón Sigurðsson.


Simonsen, Kim, 2018. "Hammershaimb, Venceslaus Ulricus", Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe, ed. Joep Leerssen (electronic version; Amsterdam: Study Platform on Interlocking Nationalisms, https://ernie.uva.nl/), article version 1.1.2.1/a, last changed 10-08-2018, consulted 26-02-2020.