Indirect Speech

The aim of this paper is to analyse the Catalan and Spanish quotative recomplementation (QRC) in terms of pragmatic features encoded by morphosyntax. In QRC constructions, the second complementizer (que2) is used to set the boundaries between a reproduced discourse and the clausal elements that were implicit in the original discourse, which must be reintroduced in the new communicative situation because they are not shared by the interlocutor (e.g. Sp. Están sentados en la mesa --> Ha dicho que1 los invitados #(que2) están sentados en la mesa). QRC is an evidence for the existence of two types of complements for assertive verbs: quotative complements (embedded speech acts with a de dicto interpretation) and reportative complements (speech events that are stated, with a de re interpretation; e.g. Sp. Están sentados en la mesa --> Ha dicho que1 los invitados (#que2) ya están en su sitio). Quotative complements have the same propositional structure as the original sentence and can include some elements such as speech act adverbs —which are oriented to the original speaker (i.e. the matrix clause subject)—, Hanging Topics, or discourse connectors. On the contrary, reportative complements may be a summary of the original discourse and they have not such elements oriented to the original speaker or the previous discourse. Besides, reportative complements allow long-distance movement from the embedded CP to the matrix CP.

В статье рассматриваются три типа предложений, встречающихся в турецких новостных материалах: предложения с косвенной речью; предложения с прямой речью; предложения, содержащие и прямую, и косвенную речь. Анализируется литература по теме статьи, указываются способы оформления косвенной и прямой речи, включая широко употребляемые в текстах СМИ грамматические конструкции с глаголом bulunmak. Приводится список лексико-семантических групп глаголов речи, характерных для турецких новостных материалов, а также описывается их сочетаемость с некоторыми грамматическими формами; выявляются способы оформления предложений, в рамках которых сочетается прямая и косвенная речь, устанавливается частотность встречаемости предложений с прямой и косвенной речью. Рассматриваемые в статье лексико-грамматические особенности проиллюстрированы примерами с комментариями.

Our paper analyzes the way verbal aspect is involved in the changes of verbal forms in the transformation of direct into indirect speech. Latin sequence of tenses consisted of a set of rules that restricted the selection of verbal forms in a subordinate clause. Generally, Western Romance languages have inherited the same restrictions, while they are almost absent in Romanian. In our analysis we will prove that these rules have a logical pattern in Romance, as each form has to be replaced by another, according to three rules: conservation of the mood (or use of a compatible one), conservation of the aspect (perfect is replaced by perfect, imperfect by imperfect) and shifting one step backwards on the temporal axis (from future to present, from present to past, from past to an anterior past, etc.). The novelty of this paper consists in the logical explanation of such substitutions (e. g. why the future of the indicative is replaced by the present of the conditional in Western Romance), based on the aspectual behavior of verbal forms. Résumé Notre travail analyse la manière dont l'aspect verbal est impliqué dans les changements soufferts par les formes verbales pendant la transformation du discours direct en discours indirect. La concordance des temps en latin impliquait des règles qui établissait des restrictions sur la sélection des formes verbales des propositions subordonnées. En général, les langues romanes occidentales ont hérité les mêmes restrictions, qui sont presque absentes de la langue roumaine. Pendant notre analyse on essaye de prouver que ces règles suivent un modèle logique dans les langues romanes, où chaque forme sera remplacée par une autre, second les règles suivantes: conservation du mode (ou l'emploi d'un mode compatible), conservation de l'aspect (les formes perfectives se remplacent par formes perfectives, les imperfectives par imperfectives), et le déplacement vers une étape antérieure sur l'axe temporel (du futur au présent, du présent au passé, du passé au passé antérieur, etc.). La nouveauté de cet article réside en l'explication logique de ces substitutions (par ex., pourquoi le futur de l'indicatif est remplacé par le présent du conditionnel dans la romanité occidentale), en conformité au comportement aspectuel des formes verbales. Rezumat Lucrarea noastră analizează modul în care aspectul verbal este implicat în schimbările suferite de formele verbale în timpul transformării discursului direct în discurs indirect. Concordanţa timpurilor în limba latină presupunea un set de reguli care puneau restricţii asupra selecţiei formelor verbale din propoziţiile subordonate. În general, limbile romanice occidentale au moştenit aceleaşi restricţii, aproape absente în limba română. În analiza noastră vom demonstra că aceste reguli urmează un model logic în limbile romanice, unde fiecare formă verbală va fi

Abstract
This paper attempts a comparative study of the late nineteenth century CE Russian scholar Viktor Shklovsky’s theory of ostranenie or enstrangement, and the late tenth century CE Sanskrit scholar Rājānaka Kuntaka’s theory of vakrokti or indirect speech—both of which are broadly concerned with literariness or what differentiates literature from everyday speech. Much of Viktor Shklovsky’s discussions on enstrangement appear in his 1925 text Theory of Prose. The Sanskrit scholar Rājānaka Kuntaka’s theory of indirect speech, on the other hand, appears in his eleventh century CE text Vakrokti-jīvita (Vakrokti: The Essence of Poetry). The methodology adapted for this paper is the Variation approach of Comparative Literature developed recently by the Chinese comparatists, which insists on exploring similarities as well as emphasizing differences. As a study in the area of Comparative Poetics or the comparative study of theories and concepts across cultures, the broader objective of this paper is to weigh the possibility of cross-cultural influence between the theorists. The paper contends that comparative studies involving such non-canonical critical lenses are crucial to (a) enhance the visibility of various other/ed poetics across cultures, (b) expose and question the ideological bearings of the dominant theoretical traditions, and (c) explore the potential and adaptability of the little explored critical lenses for the contemporary readers.

Keywords: Comparative Poetics, Enstrangement (ostranenie), Indirect Speech (vakrokti), Viktor Shklovsky, Rājānaka Kuntaka, Variation Approach.

This article provides a detailed survey of complement clauses and complementation strategies in Japhug. It shows the bewildering diversity of constructions attested in these languages, which are largely unpredictable and need to be specified for each complement-taking verb. Special focus is given to typologically unusual constructions, in particular Hybrid Indirect Speech.

В статье рассматривается паратактический анализ косвенной речи и пропозициональных установок, предложенный Дональдом Дэвидсоном, а также некоторые проблемы, с которыми этот подход сталкивается, и перспективы его дальнейшего применения. В частности, рассматривается то, как в рамках холистской установки по отношению к языковому значению можно использовать различие между предложением и высказыванием для решения некоторых семантических парадоксов.

In medieval Polish language we can see an intermediate stage of formation of the reported speech. There are some mixed constructions, in which the conjunction iże, expressing a subordinate relation, typical for the introduction of reported speech, introduces direct speech. In the paper I analyze the relation of these constructions to Latin sources on the example of the Old Polish apocrypha. They often appear where in a given place in the source text there were constructions foreign to the Polish language, like Accusativus cum infinitivo, or when the quotation in the source was introduced by a quia that could introduce indirect and indirect speech or be part of the quotation itself as a particle. Mixed constructs also appear where the compilation boundary is just where the quotation is introduced. Another problem for the Old Polish authors was the interpenetration of the levels of the plot and non-plot reality.

Artikkeli kasittelee pluskvamperfektilauseiden funktioita ja merkityksia kertovissa tekstikonteksteissa. Perinteisesti pluskvamperfekti on luettu kielen tempusjarjestelmaan kuuluvaksi kieliopillistuneeksi aikamuodoksi, jonka funktiot on totuttu yhdistamaan temporaalisuuteen. Tassa tutkimuksessa pluskvamperfektilauseita kasitellaan moniaanisina ja monikontekstisina konstruktioina, jotka synnyttavat tekstiin erilaisia diskursiivisia merkityksia. Keskeisiksi teoreettisiksi lahestymistavoiksi voi nimeta niin kieliopintutkimuksen kuin narratiivisesti orientoituneen diskurssintutkimuksen, joiden kautta kerronnantutkimuksen narratologisia menetelmia yhdistetaan kielitieteellisesti painottuneeseen tekstianalyysiin. Pluskvamperfektilauseet nahdaan vahvasti kertojadiskurssin lasnaoloa osoittavina tekstilauseina. Ne jaetaan kahteen paaryhmaan, metanarratiivisiin ja moniaanisiin pluskvamperfektilauseisiin. Tassa erottelussa hyodynnetaan sellaisia tempuskuvauk-sista tuttuja kasitteita kuin absol...

This article introduces the concept of indirect speech and shows what it can contribute to understanding ‘legitimacy talk’ regarding international institutions. Indirect speech occurs when one kind of illocutionary act is used to communicate another. Examples include euphemism, some forms of politeness, and when a request is expressed as a question (“Can you pass the salt?”). Transporting concepts from pragmatics and sociolinguistics, this article argues that legitimacy talk often serves this function in international politics, operating by expressing specific requests in the form of more generalized legitimacy claims. Understanding this double role of legitimacy talk sheds light on otherwise puzzling empirical phenomena, such as why states frame their demands in terms of legitimacy when they are transparently self-serving, why states with different interests can nonetheless express their demands in the same terms, and why they persist in doing so long after there is any realistic hope of being ‘persuasive’. These theoretical arguments are substantiated by application to the requests for institutional reform taking place in the context of intergovernmental debates about the reform of the United Nations Security Council.

The corpus-based analysis of the omission of esse in the Aeneid goes deeper than was possible in traditional stylistics and, as such, is an example of how state-of-the-art linguistic analyses can cast new light on literary works, considerably enhancing our comprehension of these. The study of sum in the Aeneid provides some interesting and unexpected data, such as the greater presence of verbal forms in direct speech—a discursive type which is, on the face of it, more suitable for elliptical phenomena—than in narration. An initial statistical analysis shows that these occurrences are inversely proportional: the longer the narrative text, the fewer verbal forms of sum are found. Using a multilayered linguistic analysis, Cabrillana claims that several factors might account for this behaviour of sum: the use of grammatically marked verbal forms (for the tense, mood, person and number) in direct speech makes the lexical presence of such forms indispensable, while co-causal factors can also occur, such as pragmatic focalization of the verbal form and the presence of impressive illocutionary force, as well as lexical-semantic factors (quasi-formulaic constructions or the expression of a specific semantic notion through esse).

Le conditionnel journalistique est conditionnel de reprise : il s'emploie pour reprendre des propos tout en manifestant une prise de distance a l'egard de ces propos, le critere etant toujours pertinent. L'hypothese de signifie du conditionnel formulee ici tente de rendre compte et de sa morphologie (morpheme R du virtuel et morpheme ais marquant la toncalite, c'est-a-dire l'appartenance a un plan autre que celui des coordonnees-origine) et de ses emplois, y compris lorsqu'il n'est ni « futur dans le passe », ni « conditionnel proprement dit ». Force a ete d'admettre que l'orientation vers la validation ne fait pas partie de ce signifie, alors que, en anglais, elle fait partie du semantisme de would. C'est la precisement que reside la difficulte de traduction en anglais du conditionnel journalistique : l'emploi de would + BV est toujours exclu. Les solutions de traduction tiennent compte soit de l'existence d'une source, implicite ...

En este artículo se presenta un método automatizado para detectar construcciones dicendi en textos periodísticos recogidos en el marco de las Elecciones Presidenciales Primarias de 2013, un evento político de alta relevancia en Chile. Se definen las construcciones dicendi (cdic) como aquellas a las que recurre un emisor (en este caso, un periodista) para introducir en su enunciado un discurso proveniente de una enunciación ajena. Para el trabajo de análisis automático, se procedió a la descripción de las cdic que permitió la posterior modelización para la implantación en máquina. Se trabajó con la herramienta Xfst, que se presenta como una implementación de autómatas de estados finitos, cuyo objetivo es producir análisis morfológico y generación, con la cual se logró un 80% de precisión y un 85% de cobertura. Los resultados indican una amplia diversidad de verbos dicendi, el empleo predominante del estilo indirecto y usos verbales acordes a los manuales de estilo. Abstract This article presents an automated method for detecting constructions dicendi in journalistic texts, compiled within the framework of the 2013 Primary Presidential Elections, a highly relevant political event in Chile. Dicendi constructions (dicc) are defined as those to which a writer (in this case, a journalist) has recourse in order to introduce a discourse coming from an unrelated enunciation into his own enunciation. For the automatic analysis work, we proceeded to the description of the dicc that allowed the later modelling for the machine implantation. We worked with the Xfst tool, which is presented as an implementation of automatons of finite states, which produce morphological analysis and generation, by achieving 80% accuracy and 85% coverage. The results indicate a wide diversity of dicendi verbs, the predominant use of indirect style and verbal uses according to style manuals.

Цель этой статьи – выявить изменения в функционировании опорных предикатов чужой речи в русских летописях XI–XVI вв. В центре исследования – распределение цитативных глаголов со значением ‘сказать’ и ‘рассказывать’. В ранних летописях глаголы типа ‘сказать’ – рещи, глаголати и мълвити – вводят только прямую речь. Опорные предикаты со значением ‘рассказывать’, такие как бысть вѣсть и съказати, в основном используются при косвенной речи. В более поздних летописях синтаксическое распределение опорных предикатов стирается. В Никоновской летописи за XV–XVI вв. наиболее частотными глаголами речи становятся говорити и сказати в значении ‘рассказать’. Сказати используется при косвенной речи, говорити – при цитациях обоих типов. Иллокутивные глаголы фиксируются редко и используются как при прямой, так и при косвенной речи.

Asher and Lascarides (2003) maintain that speech act types, the sorts of linguistic actions described and categorized, most influentially, by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969, 1979) arerhetorical relations. This relational account of speech acts is problematic for two reasons: Despite Asher and Lascarides (2001) ingenious appeal to dot type speech acts, the relational account is incompatible with the widespread phenomenon of indirect speech; only some speech acts are plausibly identified with rhetorical relations. These problems can be solved if a distinction between two kinds of speech act is recognized:Discourse-structuring speech actsare performed upon utterances and thus are plausibly identified with rhetorical relations, whilenon-discourse-structuring speech actsare performed upon conversational participants and thus are not plausibly identified with such relations. The typologies for these two kinds of speech acts cut across one another, and this suggests a promising approach to...

En este trabajo presentamos algunas reflexiones sobre la naturaleza de los verbos introductores de discurso indirecto, a la luz de las clasificaciones que distintos autores (c. Maldonado, d. Maingueneau, g. Strauch y m. Martins-Baltar) han propuesto en las ultimas decadas de nuestro siglo. Todo discurso indirecto esta definido por al menos dos situaciones de enunciacion diferentes: una en la que se reproduce un discurso, y otra, anterior, en la que se produjo originariamente el citado discurso. A menudo las reflexiones linguisticas se concentran en lo que dice o piensa el locutor primitivo, o mas precisamente en lo que dice o piensa el locutor reproductor a proposito de las palabras o pensamientos del locutor primitivo. Sin embargo, la comunicacion humana es mas compleja, de hecho, podemos reproducir no solo discursos orales y mentales, sino tambien discursos escritos e incluso gestuales, pero la libertad expresiva de la que disfruta el locutor primitivo no se corresponde exactament...