Biblical Hebrew

[April 2024: See now the Accepted-Manuscript version: https://www.academia.edu/117750386/The_Situating_Noun_in_Ancient_Hebrew_A_New_Understanding_of_א%D6%B4יש%D7%81_Accepted_Manuscript_version_ ]

This paper integrates insights from cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, various linguistics disciplines, and biblical studies to answer the questions “What did ancient Hebrew speakers/writers mean by using the noun אִישׁ (including אִשָּׁה and their plurals)? How and when did they use it?” | Answer: Prototypically, this noun profiles its referent as an essential participant in the depicted situation, when the speaker is depicting that situation schematically. Therefore אִישׁ deserves to be called “the situational noun.” Its use made communication more efficient. | This communication-based view of אִישׁ yields a more coherent and informative text of the Hebrew Bible than the conventional one. It also explains several ways in which אִישׁ differs from other general human nouns. | The original paper for the Biblical Lexicography section of the 2021 annual meeting of the Society for Biblical Literature summarized and updated the author’s 2020 dissertation and two previous articles. This 2023 version includes further updates, including changing the main term used from “situational noun” to “situating noun.”

Hebrew philologists disagree on how to describe the biblical Hebrew verbal system. We especially disagree about the difference in meaning between the main verb forms: yiqtol and qatal, wayyiqtol, weyiqtol, weqatal: is it tense, taxis, aspect, modality, or something else that prompts the use of one form rather than the other?
In this paper I clarify the semantic value of the finite verb forms in biblical Hebrew by identifying a model that accounts for the selection of verb forms in a limited corpus: the narrative beginning in 1 Samuel.
This study contributes to the resolution of the question of Biblical Hebrew verb form semantics by using the same method I applied to Qumran Hebrew: analyzing all the verbs in this narrative, using an empirical method of statistical correlation between form and meaning. I first produced a computer database of all the verbs in this corpus, tagged for formal features such as morphology, situation aspect, and word order on one hand, and semantic functions such as time reference, viewpoint aspect, and modality on the other. I then determined the strength of an association between each form and each function. Finally, I used the patterns found in these correlations to (1) evaluate conflicting proposed interpretations, and (2) construct a model that accounts for the ancient Hebrew author’s choice of verb forms in this corpus.
In this paper I first introduce the problem of Hebrew tense and aspect, then very briefly outline the basics of relevant theoretical linguistics, significant methodological issues, and previous attempts to explain the Hebrew verbs, synthesize statistical trends from the database into hypotheses, and describe the results of applying these hypotheses to specific verbs in 1 Samuel 1-2.

The primary concern of this study is to understand how curse affects the power of blessing in Genesis 1–11. First, we examine the semantics of blessing and curse in light of their history of interpretation. Second, each blessing (1:22, 28; 9:1–3, 7, 26, 27) and curse (3:14–15, 16, 17–19; 4:11–12; 9:25) that occurs within reported speech in Genesis 1–11 is categorized and examined according to its linguistic pattern and performative character. Third, the role of blessing and/or curse is determined in the development of narrative tension in the various discourse units of Genesis 1–11.
Blessing and curse are shown to be intimately connected to Creation theology: blessing is given to drive Creation toward its intended telos, while curse is pronounced when that telos is threatened. Both are a central part of Yahweh's upholding of the Order of Creation. Curse affects the power of blessing both negatively and positively in Genesis 1–11. Negatively, curse causes hostility and alienation, and can also be held partially responsible for the epidemic of death. But curse does not have the final word. Positively, curse mitigates rebellion by imposing restrictions on the transgressor. Furthermore, curse carries with it a way for life to continue.
The narrative of Genesis 1–11 bespeaks of the power words have in the world. Some create, some commission, some empower; while others punish, others alienate, and others cause death. From the beginning God has intended good for his Creation. Blessings and curses are one way of achieving that end.

For about 150 years, scholars have attempted to identify the language of the world’s first alphabetic script, and to translate some of the inscriptions that use it. Until now, their attempts have accomplished little more than identifying most of the pictographic letters and translating a few of the Semitic words. With the publication of The World’s Oldest Alphabet, a new day has dawned. All of the disputed letters have been resolved, while the language has been identified conclusively as Hebrew, allowing for the translation of 16 inscriptions that date from 1842–1446 BC. These inscriptions expressly name 3 biblical figures and greatly illuminate the earliest Israelite history in a way that no other book has achieved, apart from the Bible.

By Ellis R. Brotzman and Eric J. Tully -- This accessibly written, practical introduction to Old Testament textual criticism helps students understand the discipline and begin thinking through complex issues for themselves. The authors combine proven expertise in the classroom with cutting-edge work in Hebrew textual studies. This successful classic (nearly 25,000 copies sold) has been thoroughly expanded and updated to account for the many changes in the field over the past twenty years. It includes examples, illustrations, an updated bibliography, and a textual commentary on the book of Ruth.

A first-year resource to guide introductory Hebrew courses, A MODERN GRAMMAR FOR BIBLICAL HEBREW is a complete revision of Duane Garrett's previous textbook A MODERN GRAMMAR FOR CLASSICAL HEBREW. Written with the student in mind, this new textbook provides an innovative overview of the essentials of grammar while moving the learning into the original text as early as lesson eight, providing first-hand experience in God's word. Some of the distinct features are as follows:
    -Completes all essential first-year material in 26 lessons.
    -Clarifies the rules for accent shift and vowel change very early.
    -Overviews the verbs within the first weeks of study.
    -Enables early mastery of weak verbs.
    -Initially introduces weak roots and derived stems first through principal parts.
    -Includes intermediate topics in the final chapters and appendixes.
A MODERN GRAMMAR FOR BIBLICAL HEBREW includes tables, charts, and "blackboards" for further emphasis and features a CD containing additional helps for the student and teacher. Flexible teaching plans guide the learner through the essentials, whether the goal is an understanding of only the rudiments of traditional first-year biblical Hebrew or an appreciation of intermediate issues like Masoretic cantillation, textual criticism, lexicography, or discourse grammar and literary structure in prose and poetry. Appendixes include introductions to the standard Hebrew text and use of a lexicon, as well as a glossary, vocabulary lists, and verb paradigms.

The names of Saul’s descendants appear in a different form in the books of Chronicles (1 Chr 8:33-34; 9:39-40) as compared to those in the books of Samuel (2 Sam 2-4; 9; 19; 21). In Chronicles the name Eshbaal is used instead of Ishbosheth, and Meribaal instead of Mephibosheth. This article describes the differences between these names in the context of early Hebrew epigraphy. The recalling of the original names of the first Judaean royal dynasty in the books of Chronicles could be explained not only with reference to the original version of the books of Samuel, but also from the oral tradition of Judea or from some documents of the royal archives that survived the Babylonian conquest.

Grammatica, twaalfde herziene editie, door J.P. Lettinga, Martin Baasten, W.Th. van Peursen; Leerboek door Martin Baasten en W.Th. van Peursen

Deze Grammatica biedt een overzicht van de beginselen van het Bijbels Hebreeuws. Het werk is in eerste instantie geschreven voor de beginnende student, maar is eveneens nuttig voor gevorderden. Het boek heeft ruime aandacht voor de historische ontwikkeling van het Bijbels Hebreeuws en bevat een uitvoerige behandeling van de syntaxis. De Grammatica is ook bedoeld als naslagwerk naast het bijbehorende Leerboek van het Bijbels Hebreeuws, waarin de stof in zorgvuldig opgebouwde lessen didactisch verantwoord wordt aangeboden.

Deze twaalfde editie is geheel herzien en in overeenstemming gebracht met recente inzichten in de hebraïstiek en de taalkunde; zij bevat een aanzienlijk aantal aanvullingen en verbeteringen ten opzichte van de elfde editie (2000).

It is well known to both translators and students of the Bible, that some words or verses are very difficult, not only
to translate but also to understand. The Hebrew text of Ruth 2:7b is one of them. The purpose of this paper is to
consider some of the inherent problems of this text—such as unclear meaning of words and uncanny grammatical
structures—and to provide an overview of ancient and modern ways to deal with the difficulties. While it is logical
to assume that the author of Ruth expected to be understood (including when resorting to intentional ambiguity),
we also need to consider that the original manuscripts are lost and that the possibility of a corrupted text could
explain its awkwardness. The various translations of Ruth 2:7b stem from attempts to make sense of a text of which
the exact original, word-by-word meaning might not be established beyond all reasonable doubt, but of which the
basic intended meaning seeps through unmistakably: Ruth indeed is a hard worker, worthy of Boaz’s attentions.

The purpose of the present article is the contrastive analysis of the semantic aspect of the lexemes דָםּ (dam), krew and blood, respectively in biblical Hebrew, Polish, and English. Apart from its fundamental meaning referring to the fluid which circulates in the blood vessels of humans and animals, in all of these three languages blood occurs in many other meanings and contexts of language use. The analysis of examples taken from the Hebrew Bible and from Polish and English
dictionaries demonstrates that some of these meanings are coincident for all the three languages, some are analogous only in Polish and English and some typical only to one of these languages.
Key words: blood, contrastive analysis, semantics, symbolism, Polish, English, biblical Hebrew

Is the "male-female" binary of Genesis 1:27 complete, or should we search for a third component in the process of creating humankind in the image, according to the likeness of God? I assert that Genesis 1:27 includes three uses of 'bara' - created, created, created - to give us pause when determining the true nature of God's image, according to God's likeness. What might the third component be?

“This is a remarkable addition to the bookshelves of lovers of the book of Psalms—for prayer, for study, for pure literary enjoyment. The layout of these select loveliest psalms is perfect for readers of all levels and backgrounds, from those with just a basic knowledge of Hebrew to scholars delving into the complex syntax, cantillation system, and poetic devices of Biblical Hebrew. The ingenious page display based on the traditional accents is the cleverest and most useful design I have seen for capturing the text’s grammatical and semantic structure, simplifying a very complex system so that anybody can follow. Pure pleasure!”
—Shmuel Bolozky, Professor Emeritus of Hebrew, University of Massachusetts Amherst

“This work is an excellent introduction to the Hebrew text of the Psalms. It is particularly innovative in its focus on the Masoretic accents of the Psalms. These are usually ignored by students of Biblical Hebrew, but are of great importance for understanding how the Psalms were understood in the Masoretic tradition. The text of the Psalms is transcribed directly from the Aleppo Codex, the most important Masoretic manuscript, with details of the manuscript that do not appear in the standard printed editions. This Reader will bring students closer to the primary manuscript sources of the Psalms.”
—Geoffrey Khan, Regius Professor of Hebrew, University of Cambridge

“I’ve long been a fan of Jonathan Kline’s line of books on the biblical languages, recommending them to students and using them myself—all with great profit. My favorite thus far has been his A Proverb a Day in Biblical Hebrew, but this latest volume, A Hebrew Reader for the Psalms: 40 Beloved Texts, co-edited with Pete Myers, will no doubt jump to the head of the class. Here one finds a treasure trove of information about forty selected psalms that does exactly what Myers and Kline hope—facilitate an up-close, even intimate experience with the Hebrew text of these remarkable poems. But make no mistake about it: this is not a primer useful only for novices. An amazing amount of thought and research has gone into this volume (the appendix on accents alone is worth the price of the book), ensuring that it will be of great use even to seasoned readers and researchers of the Psalms. I am already praying that Myers and Kline will do the rest of the Psalter . . . soon!”
—Brent A. Strawn, Professor of Old Testament and Professor of Law, Duke University

“In the meticulous care Myers and Kline have put into presenting the Hebrew of these forty ‘beloved’ psalms in an accurate and accessible manner, they have performed an evident labor of love that promises to stoke the reader’s passion for the beauties of these texts and the Hebrew language. The volume’s carefully designed format invites readers across the range of facility in this language into a deeper encounter with and greater love for the Psalms.”
—Will Kynes, Associate Professor of Biblical Studies, Samford University

Available here:
https://www.christianbook.com/hebrew-reader-the-psalms-beloved-texts/pete-myers/9781683072720/pd/153047

Although the sound change w>y in Biblical Hebrew is well -
known, it has not received significant attention until now. This
paper provides a synchronic analysis to this phenomenon. The shift
is partly morphologically, partly phonologically conditioned.
Focusing on the phonological conditioning, the author describes the
exact environments of the change and suggests an explanation.
While weakening of w appears between vowel and consonant, w>y
occurs in the complementary set of environments: initial,
postconsonantal and possibly between vowels. This conditioning
and other phonological facts suggest that w>y is a strengthening. It
is thus necessary to distinguish this process from the regular
syncope of w which is morphologically, rather than
morphophonologically, conditioned.

The study of the Samaritan version of Saadya Gaon’s translation of the Pentateuch (the tafsīr), mainly based on MS London BL OR7562, shows that a Saadyan version in Arabic Characters was adopted by the Samaritans and adapted to the Samaritan Hebrew Pentateuch. The transmission of this version in MS London BL OR7562 continued after the early Samaritan Arabic translation of the Pentateuch and perhaps also its later revision had already been created, since many of their translations were preserved in MS BL OR7562, mixed with its Saadyan basic text. As MS London BL OR7562 also contains numerous words and phrases paralleled only in Christian Arabic translations of the Pentateuch and Saadyan adaptations, mainly related to the Peshitta tradition, it is reasonable to assume that these were the sources of this Samaritan Saadyan version and possibly also of the other Samaritan Arabic translations. The Samaritan version of Saadya’s translation of the Pentateuch also reveals some parallels to tenth- and eleventh-century Karaite translations and it contains prominent Aramaic and Islamic vocabulary, unfamiliar in other versions of Saadya’s tafsīr.

This article utilizes Cognitive Linguistics to present a stronger conceptual understanding of the motif of the ruined vineyard in Isaiah 1-39. First, a relations approach to utterances illuminates the function of particular terms used to describe the ruined vineyard (שׁמיר and שׁית; אמלל). Second, a domains approach to the ruined vineyard demonstrates how agriculture, society, and theological assessment inform this motif. The centrality of the vine within the fabric of society and its correspondence with peace and joy make the vine’s destruction amidst war a powerful symbol in Isaiah 1–39 for capturing the weighty reality of divine, violent judgment.

Die nachstehenden Überlegungen sind dem alttestamentlichen Hirtentheologumenon gewidmet. Ausgehend von einem früheren Beitrag der Verfasserin zum Thema (BWANT 155, 2001), soll hier – in Anlehnung an Ernst Cassirer und Nelson Goodman – die Struktur noch präziser nachgezeichnet werden, in der sich in den einschlägigen Texten die Relation Hirt–Barmherzigkeit realisiert. Ziel ist das vertiefte Verständnis eines Hirtenideals, das eine im alten Orient einzigartige symbolische Prägnanz zeigt.

A denominative verb is one that is derived from a noun. Hebrew nouns are commonly either primary nouns (i.e. without any link to a verb) or else derived from a verb. But in some cases (330 appearing in this list) it is the verb that is derived from a noun.
That is, the meaning of denominative verbs may be said to incorporate that of a noun.
        This list was posted on 17 November 2017,

Genesis 4:17 presents the exegete with a problem regarding the identification of the builder of the first city. Is Cain or is Enoch the subject of the verbs? What does the syntax have to contribute to this discussion and how does it relate to the accompanying context?

In this book Itzhak Benyamini presents an alternative reading of Genesis, a close textual analysis from the story of creation to the binding of Isaac. This reading offers the possibility of a soft relation to God, not one characterized by fear and awe. The volume presents Don-Abraham-Quixote not as a perpetual knight of faith but as a cunning believer in the face of God's demands of him. Benyamini reads Genesis without making concessions to God, asking about Him before He examines the heart of Adam, Noah, Abraham, and the other knights of faith (if they are really that). In this way, the commentary on Genesis becomes a platform for a new type of critical theology. Through this unconventional rereading of the familiar biblical text, the book attempts to extract a different ethic, one that challenges the Kierkegaardian demand of blind faith in an all-knowing moral God and offers in its stead an alternative, everyday ethic. The ethic that Benyamini uncovers is characterized by family continuity and tradition intended to ensure that very axis―familial permanence and resilience in the face of the demanding and capricious law of God and the everyday hardships of life.

HEBREW CONSTRUCT PHRASES WITH "DAUGHTER" AND "VIRGIN" AS NOMEN REGENS by Magnar Kartveit. Discussions about the phrase "Daughter of Zion" have not come to rest. Genitive as a category in Semitic grammar is treated in a separate chapter, and metaphor and irony are brought into the discussion. This book proposes understandings and translations of the phrases. Kartveit (Old Testament, School of Mission and Theology, Stavanger, Norway) explores construct phrases in Hebrew that use the terms " daughter" or "virgin" rather than the more usual "land" or "river." He discusses signs of Zion, whether "Daughter of Zion" refers to a collective or an individual, "Daughter (of) Zion" in recent research, the genitive and the construct state in Semitic languages, semantic analysis of the construct phrases with "daughter" and/or "virgin," and whether nomen regens in biblical Hebrew can be a metaphor applied (in apposition) to nomen rectum. (This text was made available at the following website: https://www.pdfdrive.com/rejoice-dear-zion-hebrew-construct-phrases-with-daughter-and-virgin-as-nomen-regens-d186512019.html)

Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary by Conceptual Categories by J. David Pleins with Jonathan Homrighausen is an innovative study reference intended for both introductory and advanced students of the Hebrew language to help them understand and remember vocabulary based on logical categories of related words. Since our minds acquire and recall language by making associations between related words it is only natural that we would study language in this way. By organizing Hebrew vocabulary into logical categories, as opposed to frequency, students can quickly begin to familiarize themselves with entire groups of terms and more readily acquaint themselves with the ranges of meaning of particular Hebrew words.

This reference tool focuses on nouns in the Old Testament, and includes over 175 word grouping categories including pottery, ships, birds, jewelry, seasons, and many more. For each Hebrew term a definition is given and a reference in the Hebrew Bible appears so readers can see the word in context. For many words additional lexical references are indicated where students can look for further study. Words that hapax legomena (words appearing only once in the Hebrew Bible) are marked with an “H” and words that are rare and appear less than 10 times are marked with an “R.” Two helpful appendices equip students for further study, these include 1) a Guide for Further Reading where recommendations are given for helpful resources for studying the larger macro categories and 2) Lists of “cluster verses” where several words in a given category appear together, giving students the ability to see how these words function together in context.

Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary by Conceptual Categories is intended to move students beyond rote memorization to a more dynamic grasp of Hebrew vocabulary, ultimately equipping them to read with more fluidity and with a deeper and more intuitive grasp of the biblical text.

Email for full.  Ancient scribes writing Biblical Hebrew could mark a Goal argument (the place to which one is moving) with the directive he suffix, with a directional preposition, or as an accusative of destination.  Previous studies have explained this alternation in terms of a few historical or linguistic variables at a time.  In this study, I use a comprehensive dataset (all factive Goals from prose Biblical Hebrew texts), a broad set of potential explanatory variables coded for each Goal and the clause in which it appears (including more than thirty diachronic, social, and linguistic variables, with a particular focus on previously-understudied syntactic-semantic variables), various statistical tools (especially multinomial logistical regression), and comparative data (from Epigraphic Hebrew, Biblical Aramaic, Ugaritic, and Akkadian) to explore the influences on and choices of the ancient scribes.  Important findings of this study include indications that 1) scribes of the Late Biblical Hebrew corpus consciously promoted the use of directive he despite the convergence of the Late Biblical Hebrew goal-marking system with that of Aramaic, as evidenced in the behavior of the goal-marking prepositions across time (a conclusion not consistent with purely stylistic explanations of the linguistic differences between Classical and Late Biblical Hebrew); 2) due to educational and social disruptions during the exile, the scribes originating texts described as Transitional Biblical Hebrew mobilized fewer prestigious linguistic features than scribes of the Classical and Late corpora, as evidenced by limitations in their goal-marking repertoires and paralleled by data from other Semitic corpora; 3) the scribes’ choices between goal-marking strategies are largely driven by sensitivity to a Prototypical Intransitive Motion Construction (in which a salient Affected Agent moves successfully and completely to an inanimate single-point Goal that contains inherent, specific geographic information) and other Motion Construction prototypes (Caused-Motion, Pursuit, etc.), with the directive he and the accusative of direction being strongly correlated with more-prototypical environments; and 4) individual prepositions may encode the type of Goal location (single-point or divisible), the place of the Goal in the information structure of the text, the mover’s configuration with respect to the Goal, or Goal animacy.

The latest debacle at the Israel Institute of Biblical Studies, described below, resembles nothing so much as an example of the antics and mayhem which in the 1960s characterised the much loved series of British Carry On films.  This was accompanied, earlier today, by the kind of spin posted to the Hebrew Forum for English Speakers which would have made the Trump White House envious.  The entire self created fiasco raises some serious legal issues which are introduced in this short paper and which will be examined in greater depth in a future paper in this series.

The paper surveys the state of research of Hebrew syntax from approximately the mid-20th century onward. It indicates the themes which have already received the attention of scholars to varying extents and points out areas of research which deserve the attention of scholars in the future. Among the topics discussed are the syntactic roles of word classes; the main syntactic functions, viz. subject, predicate, object, attribute, and adverbial; syntactic relations, viz. the predicative relation, the attributive relation, and the object/adverbial relation; verb government and valency; grammatical agreement; annexation; clause patterns, parataxis and hypotaxis; verbal moods, copulas and auxiliary verbs, and negation.