Anatomy

Freshwater gastropods are frequently used as model organisms to assess the effects of certain chemical substances. Among them Radix balthica and Lymnaea stagnalis are commonly used in the laboratory, mesocosm and fields tests. In order to determine the effects of pollutants and more particularly endocrine disrupting substances on the reproduction of these organisms, histopathological analyses can be used. Because data are still scarce in the literature, knowledge development on anatomy of reproductive tissues and gametogenesis is a preliminary step before any studies on the impact of contaminants on the reproduction of these gastropods. The characterization of the anatomy and gametogenesis of Radix balthica and Lymnaea stagnalis was thus performed in this study. Important morphological differences exist between the two species. Despite this, the gonads of the two gastropods species have similar histological structure. In both species, spermatogonia are clustered; spermatozoids are anchored in the Sertoli cells and the male cells alternate with the female cells that rest on the epithelium of the hermaphroditic gland. This study is a prerequisite for any further histopathological studies on contaminated individuals.

Signalling interactions between the polarizing region, which produces SHH, and the apical ectodermal ridge, which produces FGFs, are essential for outgrowth and patterning of vertebrate limbs. However, mechanisms that mediate translation of early positional information of cells into ...

It is sometimes argued that the non-therapeutic, non-consensual alteration of children’s genitals should be discussed in two separate ethical discourses: one for girls (in which such alterations should be termed ‘female genital mutilation’ or FGM), and one for boys (in which such alterations should be termed ‘male circumcision’). In this article, I call into question the moral and empirical basis for such a distinction, and argue that all children—whether female, male, or intersex—should be free from having parts of their genitals removed unless there is a pressing medical indication.

Previous research suggests that the moment arm of the m. triceps surae tendon (i.e., Achilles tendon), is positively correlated with the energetic cost of running. This relationship is derived from a model which predicts that shorter ankle moment arms place larger loads on the Achilles tendon, which should result in a greater amount of elastic energy storage and return. However, previous research has not empirically tested this assumed relationship. We test this hypothesis using an inverse dynamics approach in human subjects (n = 24) at speeds ranging from walking to sprinting. The spring function of the Achilles tendon was evaluated using specific net work, a metric of mechanical energy production versus absorption at a limb joint. We also combined kinematic and morphological data to directly estimate tendon stress and elastic energy storage. We find that moment arm length significantly determines the spring-like behavior of the Achilles tendon, as well as estimates of mass-specific tendon stress and elastic energy storage at running and sprinting speeds. Our results provide support for the relationship between short Achilles tendon moment arms and increased elastic energy storage, providing an empirical mechanical rationale for previous studies demonstrating a relationship between calcaneal length and running economy. We also demonstrate that speed and kinematics moderate tendon performance, suggesting a complex relationship between lower limb geometry and foot strike pattern. The role of the Achilles tendon (AT) in elastic energy storage with subsequent return during stance phase is well established 1-7. Recovery of elastic energy imparted to the AT is potentially influenced by AT morphology in three ways: (1) material properties of the tendon, (2) cross-sectional area of the tendon, and (3) the moment arm of the calcaneal tuberosity loading the tendon against the muscle force of the m. triceps surae (i.e., foot geometry). Previous work suggests that foot geometry may explain variation in how much potential energy is stored in the tendon, finding that a shorter AT moment arm is correlated with lower mass-specific energy costs of locomotion (COL; L O 2 kg −1 s −1) 8, 9. This finding suggests that shorter AT moment arms are associated with greater elastic loads imparted to the tendon, which are then recovered as kinetic energy during the support phase of each gait cycle 9 , thereby reducing COL. Scholz et al. 9 also suggest that the length of the AT moment arm is a more significant factor in explaining COL than variation in material properties of the tendon itself or size-related variation in the cost of swinging the leg forward during the aerial phase of the gait cycle 9. However, assumptions about the interacting roles of AT moment arm length, tendon cross-sectional dimensions, and tendon material properties on variation in elastic energy storage have yet to tested in an integrated manner. Moreover, Scholz et al. 9 doesn't directly measure the variables in the model which predict variation in elastic energy storage, including muscle force and the external moment arm. Finally, because previous studies of how AT moment arm length influences COL have used trained runners running on a treadmill at a speed of 16 km/h, it is still unknown how variation in speed and athletic training impacts elastic loading to the tendon in relation to moment arm length. While previous work has explored elastic loading of the AT at different speeds and under different loading conditions 10-21 , this study is the first to investigate the potential correlation between foot geometry like the AT moment arm length and spring-like behavior of this tendon in humans. In this study, we model elastic loading of the AT by characterizing the spring-like behavior over the support phase of each gait cycle using two metrics. First, we calculate specific net work (SNW) at the ankle joint. SNW is OPEN

The rete testis in the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus), Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica), guinea-fowl (Numida meleagris galeata) and drake (Anas platyrhynchos) was studied histologically and with both the scanning and transmission electron microscopes. All the birds have rete epithelial cells varying between squamous and high cuboidal. A cilium-like structure projects from the luminal portion of most cells into the rete lumen, and the outline of the cells varies from polygonal to elongate. Sparse, stubby microvilli were concentrated on the cell borders. Ultrastructural features suggest only moderate secretory and absorptive activities in the cells. The rete testis of birds is amply supplied with blood as well as lymphatic vessels and nerves. Intraepithelial lymphocytes form part of the rete epithelium, and macrophages are present in large numbers in the rete lumen of the domestic fowl and drake and, to a lesser degree, also in the rete epithelium of the drake.

The Anatomical Society has developed a series of learning outcomes that 'experts' within the field would recommend as core knowledge outputs for a Master's Degree Programme in Pharmacy (MPharm) within the UK. Using the Anatomical Society core gross anatomy syllabus for medical anatomy as a foundation, a modified Delphi technique was used to develop outcomes specific to pharmacy graduates. A Delphi panel consisting of medical practitioners, pharmacists and anatomists (n = 39) was created and involved 'experts' representing 20 UK Higher Education Institutions. The output from this study was 49 pharmacy-specific learning outcomes that are applicable to all pharmacy programmes. The new MPharm anatomy syllabus offers a basic anatomical framework upon which pharmacy educators can build the necessary clinical practice and knowledge. These learning outcomes could be used to develop anatomy teaching within an integrated curriculum as per requirements of the General Pharma...

During growth the mandible accommodates increases in biomechanical loading resulting from changes in the function of structures of the oral cavity. Biomechanical loads are thought to play an intricate and vital role in the modelling and remodelling of bone, with site-specific effects on bone mineral density. It is anticipated that the effects of this loading on bone mineral density are intensified during the functional transition from prenatal to postnatal stages. The aim of this study was thus to evaluate changes in bone mineral density across the body of the immature human mandible during the early stages of dental development. The study sample included 45 human mandibles, subdivided into three age groups: prenatal (30 gestational weeks to birth; n = 15); early postnatal (birth to 12 months; n = 18); and late postnatal (1-5 years; n = 12). Mandibles were scanned using X-ray micro-computed tomography. Eight landmarks were selected along the buccal/labial and lingual surfaces of eac...

Introduction: Placenta is a mirror which reflects the antepartum status of fetus in utero. Our present study aimed to analyse the morphometry of placenta in normal and assisted reproduction. Subjects and Methods: 30 Placentas of natural conception and 42 placentas of assisted reproduction (18 cases of singleton pregnancies, 12 cases of twin pregnancies) were collected from OG department, Rajah Muthiah Medical College and from private fertility centre in and around Chidambaram immediately after delivery. Morphometric dimensions of placenta like thickness, diameter, area, number of cotyledons were measured placental weight, fetal weight were also measured. Results: Placental weight of natural conception was 489 ± 107.84 grams, 316.78 ± 88.24 grams in assisted reproduction. Thickness of placenta was 2.767 ± 0.68 cm in natural conception, 1.78 ± 0.68 cm in assisted reproduction. Number of cotyledons, fetal weight, feto-placental ratio were also reduced in assisted reproduction. Conclusion: This is the first study to analyse the morphometric dimensions of placenta in natural conception and in assisted reproduction. Overall there was a reduction in all dimensions of placenta in assisted reproduction. This will be useful for pediatricians who handle the newborns of assisted reproduction.

Das Zentrale Nervensystem (ZNS) erlaubt es dem Organismus, über die Sinnesorgane Signale der äußeren Umwelt aufzunehmen, zu verarbeiten, zu speichern und auf diese Umweltreize adäquat zu reagieren. Als auffällige Besonderheit erfolgt im Nervensystem (z.B. im Gegensatz zum endokrinen System) die Signalweiterleitung entlang von Bahnen, die von Zellfortsätzen gebildet werden. Deshalb sind sämtliche direkt am Prozess der Informationsverarbeitung beteiligten Zellen des ZNS, die Nervenzellen oder Neurone, als Empfänger-Senderstrukturen ausgebildet.

 Órganos internos:  Ovarios o Producen gametos femeninos u obusitos  Función: o Produce hormonas femeninas y libera el ovulo todos los meses, durante el proceso de reproducción.  Estrógenos: o Sin tres estradiol, estrona, estriol.  Función: o Crecimiento del endometrio y la producción de masa del cuello uterino. o Estriado crecimiento de los genitales internos.  Progesterona: o Es la responsable del mantenimiento de la segunda fase del ciclo menstrual y del embarazo.  Testosterona.  Tubos uterinos o trompas de Falopio: o Lleva el ovulo hasta el para que de produzca la fecundación.  Útero: o Órgano hueco y musculoso en el que se desarrolla el feto. La pared interior útero es el endometrio.  Función: o Implanta y protege al nuevo ser.  Vagina: o Conducto por donde entran los espermatozoides.  Función: o Receptáculo del pene. o Proporciona pasadizo para el flujo menstrual que proviene del útero hacia el exterior. o Proporciona pasadizo para el bebe. o Conducto por donde sale la orina. o Se compone por gónadas (órganos sexuales desde se forman los gametos y produce hormonas). Junto con el órgano reproductor masculino, es encargado de procrear nuevos individuos.

Introduction A thorough understanding of skull base anatomy is imperative to perform safely and effectively any skull base approach. In this article, we examine the microsurgical anatomy of the skull base by proposing a modular topographic organization in the median, paramedian, and lateral surgical corridors in relation to transcranial and endoscopic approaches. Methods Five dry skulls were studied focusing on the intracranial and exocranial skull base. Two lines were drawn parallel to the lateral border of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and foramen lacerum, respectively. Lines 1 and 2 delimited the median, paramedian and lateral corridors of the skull base. The bony structures that formed each corridor were carefully reviewed in relation to the planning and execution of the skull base transcranial and endoscopic approaches. Results The midline corridor involves the crista galli, cribriform plate, planum and jugum sphenoidale, chiasmatic sulcus, tuberculum sellae, sellar ...

This study was designed to quantitate the vasa vasorum of common iliac arteries in 20 rats. The number of vasa vasorum per mm2 of arterial wall was extremely variable - from 0 to 124, the mean being 33 . 95 +/- 29 . 86 (S.D.). There was no significant difference in the vasa vasorum vascularity between the right and left common iliac arteries. The mean wall thickness of these arteries was 0 . 085 +/- 0 . 015 (S.D.) mm and 60 +/- 8% (S.D.) of this was made up by the tunica media. Arterial tissue in this study was shown to have approximately 10% of the vascularity of muscle tissue. By relating these data to the 'critical depth' hypothesis, on the nutritional supply of large arteries, it was concluded that the vasa vasorum in the common iliac arteries in rat (major arteries in small animals) probably play an insignificant role in the nutrition of the arterial wall.

The present study measured the position of the greater palatine foramen relative to adjacent anatomical landmarks in Brazilian skulls. The perpendicular distance of the greater palatine foramen to the midline maxillary suture in Brazilian skulls was about 14 mm and the distance of greater palatine foramen to the incisive foramen was approximately 36 mm. The distance of greater palatine foramen to the posterior border of the hard palate was approximately 3 mm, and the mean angle between the midline maxillary suture and the line from the incisive foramen and the greater palatine foramen was 22.71 degrees . In almost 70% of the cases, the greater palatine foramen opened in an anterior direction. The mean palatine length was approximately 52 mm. In the greater majority of the skulls (93.81%), the greater palatine foramina were opposite or distal to the maxillary third molar. These data will be helpful in comparing these skulls to those from various other regions as well as comparing sku...

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the effects of cranial size and shape in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) on predicted forces of biting. In addition to continuous size-shape analysis, nine size-shape groups were developed based on three skull shape categories and three skull size categories. Bite forces were predicted from measurements made on dried skulls using two lever models of the skull, as well as simple models derived by regression analysis. Observed bite force values were not available for the database used in this study, so only comparisons between categories and models were undertaken. The effects of shape and size on scaled predicted bite forces were evaluated. Results show that bite force increases as size increases, and this effect was highly significant (P < 0.0001). The effect of skull shape on bite force was significant in medium and large dogs (P < 0.05). Significant differences were not evident in small dogs. Size × shape interactions were also significant (P < 0.05). Bite force predictions by the two lever models were relatively close to each other, whereas the regression models diverged slightly with some negative numbers for very small dogs. The lever models may thus be more robust across a wider range of skull size-shapes. Results obtained here would be useful to the pet food industry for food product development, as well as to paleontologists interested in methods of estimating bite force from dry skulls.

Satisfactory analgesia cannot be achieved in every obturator nerve block. To attempt to improve the success rate of obturator nerve block, this study describes the detailed anatomy of the obturator region and canal. Eleven (5 female and 6 male) cadavers, totally 22 sides were dissected. Anatomical positions of the structures entering and leaving the canal were defined. The position of the obturator nerve and its branches and their relation with the obturator artery, vein, and with the internal iliac and femoral veins were investigated. A mould of the canal and a model were created. Detailed measurements were performed on the cadavers and models. The obturator canal was in the shape of a funnel compressed from superior to inferior, with anterior and posterior openings. At the entrance of the canal, the nerve lay superiorly; the artery was in the middle, and the vein lay inferiorly. The obturator nerve ran close to the lateral wall of the obturator canal. The distance of lateral wall of obturator canal to the median plane was 41.4 ± 1.1 mm. After leaving the canal, the nerve lay laterally while the anterior branch of the artery was medial. A venous plexus lay between the two structures. The presence of the branches of the obturator artery and vein alongside the obturator nerve may increase the risk of injury to these structures during anaesthetic procedures. The anterior division of the obturator nerve has a close relationship with these vessels. To provide complete analgesia, the obturator nerve should be blocked in the obturator canal or at its external orifice.

Background Educational computer games are examples of computer-assisted learning objects, representing an educational strategy of growing interest. Given the changes in the digital world over the last decades, students of the current generation expect technology to be used in advancing their learning requiring a need to change traditional passive learning methodologies to an active multisensory experimental learning methodology. The objective of this study was to compare a computer game-based learning method with a traditional learning method, regarding learning gains and knowledge retention, as means of teaching head and neck Anatomy and Physiology to Speech-Language and Hearing pathology undergraduate students. Methods Students were randomized to participate to one of the learning methods and the data analyst was blinded to which method of learning the students had received. Students’ prior knowledge (i.e. before undergoing the learning method), short-term knowledge retention and ...