cdc-2015-0005 The Religiousness of Confucianism Fan Chen.pdf

 Cultural Diversity in China 2015; 1(1): 27–43 Research Article Open Access Fan Lizhu, Chen Na1 The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today Abstract: The English term “Confucianism” may refer “儒教”). Shu-xian Liu divided “Confucianism” (“儒”) to three different concepts in the Chinese language: into three different levels. The first level is spiritual the school of Confucianism, scholastic tradition of Confucianism; this refers to intellectual tradition, such Confucianism, and the religious tradition of Confucianism. as the thoughts of Confucius (孔子) and Mencius (孟 From a sociological perspective, Confucianism as an 子), Neo-Confucianism of Cheng-Zhu School (程朱理 official political orthodoxy no longer exists. However, 学) and Lu-Wang School (陆王心学). The second level Confucianism as a cultural tradition remains, and it is is political Confucianism; this refers to the political expressed in various aspects of the Chinese social life, tradition from the Han Dynasty. Finally, the third level which echoes the diffused characteristics of a typical is folk Confucianism, which refers to the religion and Chinese religion. In this research, we try to demonstrate the values of three teachings, which are Confucianism, that the religiousness of Confucianism fulfills the cultural Taoism, and Buddhism (Liu, 1997:1). and ethical needs of the on-going new religious movement Every time the issue of “Confucianism” is discussed, in China. Also, it helps modern people in their search for there is always present confusion about what type of a life of meaning in times of cultural crisis and social “Confucianism” is being referred to. Is it the political anomie. one, is it the academic one, or is it the folk one which is bonded with the mysterious beliefs of Taoism and Keywords:1 Confucianism, Religiousness, Chinese Religion Buddhism? In recent years, through the ethnographical study of the religious tradition and the core value of Chinese culture, we have found that the revival of DOI 10.1515/cdc-2015-0005 “Confucianism” in different levels and forms has become Received August 1, 2014 accepted November 10, 2014 a visible social phenomenon. Therefore, what revived “Confucianism” should be addressed by academia. If The Concepts of “Confucianism” we count the history of “Confucianism” from the Spring and Autumn periods (春秋时代) to the Warring States The English term “Confucianism” may refer to three period (战国时代) (“Axial Age” called by Karl Jaspers), different concepts in the Chinese language: the school when sages such as Confucius and Mencius lived, of Confucianism (“Ru Jia” or “儒家”), the scholastic “Confucianism” would have existed for 2, 500 years. tradition of Confucianism (“Ru Xue” or “儒学”), and Furthermore, if we consider Confucius and Mencius as the religious tradition of Confucianism (“Ru Jiao”, masters who had absorbed and inherited the traditions of the Chinese culture from the Zhou Dynasty, the history of “Confucianism” can be longer. “Confucianism has 1 Lizhu FAN, Professor of sociology at Fudan University and research fellow at Institute of Religion and State Security, and Managing Associ- been a determining factor in the Chinese culture since ate Director of Fudan-UC Center on Contemporary China; Na CHEN, Re- its beginning. It laid down the structural principles, and search fellow of Center on Social Development, Fudan University and supplied the key operational values for the basic Chinese research fellow at Institute of Religion and State Security; Research As- institutions from family to state” (Yang, 1961:244) (The sociate, IR/PS, University of California at San Diego. This article is par- religious nature of Confucianism, that is whether it is a tially funded by National Social Science Foundation (2010/10BZJ005) on “The revival and changing process of Chinese traditional religion”. religion or not, is a controversial subject, a discussion of *Corresponding author: Fan Lizhu: Fudan University, E-mail: lizhu- [email protected] Chen Na: Fudan University, Email: [email protected] © 2015 Fan Lizhu and Chen Na, licensee De Gruyter Open. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 28  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na which is beyond the scope of this study2) as a morally accomplished person junzi (“君子”)5; taking In modern times, regardless of their opinions on responsibilities in the society as social beings; and Confucius or Confucianism, there are scholars who developing harmonious relationships with nature in the continuously try to argue that the “Confucianism” in world as human beings. Chinese cultural tradition is a religion3. In fact, there are In the real world, the various existence phenomenon few people in present day China who claim Confucian of Confucianism, namely, the different concepts of religion as their religion. Perhaps, many people have had Confucianism mentioned above, can be found. First of all, such experience also. Many years ago, anthropologist there are few intellectual elites studying ethics, history, Yih-yuan Li mentioned such cultural embarrassment of classics, the relevant linguistics, semantic expression, the Chinese caused by the question of religion4. In the and so on, in the academic ivory tower. Some of them time of globalization, using a common discourse system dedicated themselves to Confucian religion by explaining to communicate and discuss the issues concerned by and promoting the Confucian classics. For example, Tu all,human-beings is helpful for people from different Weiming was the most famous advocate for Confucian cultural systems to understand each other. tradition outside China in the 1970s and 1980s. For most Chinese people, the issue of religion and With the on-going modernization process, social belief is a difficult and confusing subject to discuss. groups risk weakening the moral consensus and social This is because their religious tradition is a combination order upon which the Chinese society’s well-being of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, as well as depends. The re-evaluation of tradition by contemporary the widely practiced ancestral worship. Such kind of Chinese scholars has led to the extraordinary resurgence situation, perhaps, can puzzle the people with the of religious tradition. A lot of research has discovered that religious and cultural background of Abraham. As for communities and individuals turning to these religious Chinese intellectuals, they inherit the values of traditional practices do so as a result of their search for a life of doctrine of Confucius and Mencius: conducting cultivation meaning as well as their struggle with moral concerns (Fan, Whitehead and Whitehead, 2010:221). Therefore, Confucianism comes back into people’s view. In the early 90s, Xiaotong Fei wrote a short article after visiting Qufu ( 曲阜), which was the hometown of Confucius. The article went thus: “someone wanted to destroy the Confucius Temple (Kongmiao, 孔庙) during the ‘Cultural Revolution’, 2  In W.C. Smith’s often-quoted remark, “the question ‘Is Confucia- but the masses protected it. Why did the masses protect nism a religion?’ is one that the West has never been able to answer, the Confucius Temple? This is because at that time, the and China has never been able to ask” (See, e.g., Yong Chen, Confu- Confucius Temple was an icon of great value in the eyes cianism as Religion: Controversies and Consequences (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 84-85). Tu Weiming wrote: “The problem of whether Neo-Con- of the Chinese people.” (Fei, 1992). “All countries should fucianism is a religion should not be confused with the more signifi- have its thinkers. China should have great thinkers in cant question: what does it mean to be religious in the Neo-Confucian the world, giving its large population”. The traditional community? The solution to the former often depends on the particu- essence of Confucianism is the great contributions China lar interpretive position we choose to take on what constitutes the pa- has made to the world (Fei, 1992). radigmatic example of a religion, which may have little to do with our knowledge about Neo-Confucianism as a spiritual tradition (my em- In the 1980s, following the rapid economic phasis) (Tu Weiming, Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Trans- development of the so-called “Four Mini-Dragons” in formation (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985: 132)). TU Weiming pointed that the Confucian cultural area, Max Weber’s classical idea many scholars working on China or Chinese religion, confronted a was applied and Confucian ethics was promoted as a question whether Confucianism is a religion or not. I asked them a motivating force to generate a spirit of capitalism. This question, what is religion? If someone did not recognize Confucia- forcefully refuted the assertion that Confucianism was nism as a religion, you can infer that the definition of religion they adopted is quite conservative. If someone says that Confucianism is feudalistic. Rather, Confucianism was believed to be a religion, you should be careful with the definition, which must in- compatible with a modern form of life and instrumental clude as many different ideologies religion includes (Tu, Wenhuibao, November 21, 2011). 3  Such as Kang Youwei, Ren Jiyu, Li Shen, etc. 5  Junzi, Gentlemen, superior man, noble person, paradigmatic indi- 4  Anthropologist Li Yih-yuan (李亦园) has suggested that misun- vidual, exemplary person. On the Confucian account, junzi serve the derstandings arise when the wrong question is posed. If asked by a role of models (fa), ritual propriety (li), and appropriate (yi) conduct. Westerner, “To which religion do you belong?”, a Chinese person is Confucius had extended the notion of junzi from its original reference likely to respond, “It’s hard to say!” to nobles to include the virtuous cultivation available to all. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   29 in facilitating East Asian modernization. This thesis cases have reflected that religious Confucianism became is controversial, but the idea of an “elective affinity” an important part of folk belief through the rebuilding between Confucian ethics and the rise of Japan, South of lineage traditions in the living world. In a research Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Mainland China, of The Temple of Memories, Jun Jing reported that the and Vietnam is widely accepted (Tu, 2012:79).. local Kong (the offspring of Confucius) had built the For example, Ambrose King developed his hypothesis temple for the worship of Confucius and their own local on the cultural conditions involved in assimilating ancestors, and they had called it Confucian temple rather capitalism: Confucian values are providing the than ancestral shrine (Jing, 1996). The Confucian temple motivational drive for economic development in East played a core role in the reconstruction of the religious Asian society (King, 1983:75). His argument, based on life, the awareness of kinship, and the structure of power evidence from Hong Kong, was that the Hong Kong Chinese in Dachuan (大川) (Jing, 1996). There are similar cases in consciously or subconsciously transformed Confucianism our study of the clans in Southern Zhejiang. The Kong into a kind of rationalistic traditionalism which was lineage temple provides another kind of example, where very much needed for the development of Capitalism its new incarnation serves as a Confucius temple as well there. Therefore, the assimilation of capitalism in Hong as a kinship association. It thus serves the whole village as Kong has been facilitated by the cultural “conditions”, well as people of the Kong lineage. From the perspective “provided by a transformed type of Confucianism, or by of today’s social practice, despite the disappearance what I call rationalistic traditionalism” (King, 1996:264- of political orthodox position of “Confucianism”, the 276). Although the imperial or institutional Confucianism traditions of “Confucianism” still exist in social life with never took root in Hong Kong for historical reasons, Hong its variability—this is in accordance with the richness and Kong was full of social Confucianism or Confucianism the complexity of the Chinese civilization, and is echoed in everyday life (a set of Confucian beliefs and values with the diffuseness of the Chinese religious practice. accepted by the man in the street). Because Confucian Therefore, “Confucianism”, in the light of religion, has values form part of the common cultural upbringings more vivid performance in China today. shared by the Chinese people in their everyday lives, it has provided intrinsic transcendent values which includes glorifying ancestors by achieving worldly success. In The Theological Foundation of fact, the values of Confucianism are not necessarily an Chinese Beliefs and the Religious obstacle to the development of modernization in East Asia; it may provide a spiritual disposition for the modern Character of “Confucianism” market economy (Chen, 1995). Thus, the impact of social The religious character of Confucianism has existed from Confucianism in King’s term is more significant than the as early as two thousand years ago when Confucianism impact of political and scholarly Confucianism in modern emerged. But during the feudal era, Confucianism was a time. determining factor, which laid down structural principles The Revival of Confucianism can be seen from and supplied key operational values for the basic different social rituals—the range is from the teachings of institutions from family to state as cultural and political classical Confucian canons to the teachings of Confucian orthodox. Therefore, its religious character, including behaviors on the basis of an ancient manual for students, belief in spirits and miracles, was incompatible with and from the revival of the traditional way of dressing Confucianism. According to C. K. Yang, in the Chinese to the invention of Confucian weddings (Sun, 2012:324). religious tradition, the supernatural realm was patterned Some new developed social organizations have taken the closely after the image of the human world. The Confucian role of organizers, such as the Yidan School (“一耽学堂”) tradition had long recognized the need for popular in Beijing and the Mengmu School (“孟母堂”) in Shanghai. ethicopolitical cults, as numerous classical statements Learning Confucian classics and social behaviors, together attest. The most succinct one is found in Confucian classic with the involvement of public good as a new social I Ching (易经[the Book of Change]): “The sages devised movement, is strongly supported by Confucian values. guidance by the way of the gods, and the ［people in In addition, in the multiple and complicated religious the］empire became obedient圣人以神道设教，天下服 revivals and religious renovations, there has appeared the 矣” (Yang, 1961:144-145). practice which is not only centered on Confucian religion, The religious factors represent the major aspects but also centered on religious rituals of Buddhism and of Confucianism in the belief of Heaven and fate, the Taoism, and the content of folk religions. Some typical Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 30  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na theory of Yin-yang, and the Five Elements. Actually, ancestral worship which came from the Shang and Zhou Confucianism, which was started by Confucius during the Dynasty, and permeated into the political system and late Spring and Autumn periods, was based on religious the civil moral teaching through ritual and Ceremonial foundations with beliefs such as belief in “Heaven and system. However, the religious elements of the Chinese fate, and ancestral worship of the slavery period of the civilization played a significant role in the Chinese social Shang and Zhou Dynasties” (Ren, 1980:61-62). In his life, even until today. classic study of Religion in Chinese Society, sociologist C. Confucius’s time was under social collapse and dynasty K. Yang identified the heart of China’s earliest religion— decline—“rites collapsed and music disappeared”, and which he calls “the original indigenous religion of China” wars between princes continued. Confucius, Mencius, and (Yang, 1961:24)—as “the belief in Heaven and fate, the many other thinkers at that time tried to rescue the world condoning of divination, the close alliance of the theory from chaos and sufferings by applying their own ideas. At of Yin-yang and the Five Elements, the emphasis on the same time, some of them even put efforts to reduce the sacrifice, and ancestral worship” (Yang, 1961:225). In his influence of supernatural divination—disenchantment research, Zhaoguang Ge noticed that during the Shang of the world. Therefore, many scholars have found the dynasty, magical powers brought order to the living world, agnostic nature of Confucius and Confucianism through such as, systemizing the concept of ancestral worship and the statement of Confucius Analects. For example, “the imperial power, as well as the knowledge and techniques Master did not talk about the extraordinary forces and of divination and sacrifice rites (Ge, 2007). Diviners disturbing spirits”6. Confucius himself had seemed to interpreted the patterns of cracks produced by heating disengage himself from explicitly religious issues, because pieces of animal bone, which were often shoulder blades his main mission was to promote moral cause as secular of cattle or shells of turtles. These readings would then be means in a chaotic society. At the time of Confucius, used to guide royal decision-making. Benjamin Schwartz and for two centuries afterwards, a rationalistic trend of reminds us that “a good portion of the oracle bone thoughts resulted in a growing emphasis on the moral and literature is concerned with religious matters” (Schwartz, social functions of sacrifice as a vital part of the Confucian 1985:18). system of Li (ritualism) for the regulation of social conduct From Shang Dynasty forward—and possibly even (Yang, 1961:254). In this instance, Confucian doctrine before—the Chinese people have reverenced their was characterized by a predominance of this worldly deceased ancestors and devised elaborate rituals to and even rationalistic quality in the very beginning. Tu honor them. Such ceremonies became a core element Weiming even thought that holistic Confucian humanism of the religious orientation of the culture (Schwartz, is more relevant to the tendency of the day than secular- 1985:20), and were firmly integrated into Confucianism humanism developed from the Enlightenment era, from by Confucius, Mencius, and subsequent Confucians. As the today’s point of view (Tu, 2004). a religious orientation, ancestral worship “highlights However, we may need to take note of the time in the kinship group as a paradigm of social order—that which Confucius lived. During that period, gods and is, as a network of intimately related roles. The fact that spirits were thought to be pervasive; in fact, supernatural the relationships between these roles span the division concepts had such a strong impact on the human world between the world of the living and the numinous world which lay beyond the imagination of modern people. of the dead may indeed enormously reinforce the sense Hence, the interactions between Heaven and man were of the ‘ontic’ reality of role and status, and of the order in widely received as a standard of interpreting man’s moral which they are embedded” (Schwartz, 1985:23). The rites conduct, and a reference for interpreting the operation of ancestral veneration expanded across Chinese history. of supernatural forces in the sky, the rise and fall of a Chang Kuang-Chih (2002:29) pointed the continuity of the dynasty, and the art of divination. Hence, supernatural Chinese civilization— which was created according to the explanations for natural phenomena in the universe integrated universe theory. Therefore, the Chinese had as well as intimate events in living world were based preserved well the kinship in the social structure passed on natural forces. Confucianism eventually developed down from the clan society; condoning of divination was institutional doctrine for social and moral values by dominant in the operation of ancient politics. Chinese operating political and sacrificial rituals. Hence, without civilization adopted many religious elements and handed religious aspects, Confucianism would probably not have them down continuously—a sustainable harmonious and mysterious relationship between the human species and 6  The text is from the Shu Er (述而) [Transmission] of the Analects ( nature. Confucianism integrated the belief in Heaven and 论语). Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   31 had such success as an institutional Chinese political and integration of a vast country. More importantly, the ethical social structure in the past two thousand years (Yang, content of belief in Heaven and ancestral worship created 1961:257). a submissive attitude in the populace. So, the formula Kongzi (Confucius), Mengzi (Mencius), and those of Confucian orthodoxy included moral meaning into who followed them took up many of the spiritual imperial power and the moralization of power, giving a themes which were applied in their cultures, and further stability to the institution of government which could have developed and re-interpreted. In the past centuries, this never been achieved by force alone (Yang, 1961;136-138). complex intellectual insight and spiritual conviction In its historical development, the Confucian system coalesced into a culture-wide belief system with many of moral and religious values became more and more religious characteristics (Fan, Whitehead and Whitehead, diffused throughout the Chinese society, often being 2010:202). In his remarkable book Religion in Chinese fused with other spiritual systems. Especially after the society, C. K. Yang pointed out that the religious aspects in Han Dynasty, the Confucian value system intermingled Confucianism system enabled itself to work with religious with the Taoist and Buddhist ideals which had gained influence and supernatural concepts. Yang’s discussion more prominence in the Chinese culture. Because of the had covered religious influence on different social aspects: influence of Confucianism embedded within the Chinese the integration of family, the operation of the mandate of society, most Chinese people gained experience and Heaven, the ethicopolitical cult, and the traditional moral practice without knowing (百姓日用而不知). order; the values at the heart of the Confucian heritage, which survived as traditions, were “not only on the ground of rationalistic appeal but also on the strength of The Religious Confucianism and supernatural sanction” (Yang, 1961:255). The beliefs that New Religious Movements anchored this value system were culture-wide convictions about the transcendent influence of Tian (天), and the What is the fate of Confucianism in the age of modernity? moral guidance available through attuning oneself to the For the past 30 years in China, there has been a remarkable mysterious—and also transcendent—Dao (道). resurgence of religious beliefs and practice. The revival To sum up, the religious elements of Confucianism of “Confucianism” has received much attention both mainly originated from the traditional belief in heaven academically and politically among the new religious and ancestral worship before Confucius, and were later movements in China. The fate of “Confucianism” can be enhanced in daily life through political institutions and revealed from different dimensions. cultural systems developed by the Confucian scholars. Confucianism is no longer the Orthodoxy: At the In Zhongguo Wenhua De Gen Yu Hua (中国文化的根与花 beginning of the 20th century, with the abolition of the The Roots and Flowers of Chinese Culture), Guanghu He imperial examination system and the collapse of Qing held the view that religious Confucianism did not refer Empire, the historical and institutional links between the to academic Confucianism or entire Confucianism, but Confucian classical education and the reward distribution referred to the so-called “the original-indigenous religion” system ended in China. Confucianism lost its political which came down from the Shang Dynasty about 3, 000 legitimacy as the orthodox ideology. In the subsequent years ago. This was a system whose core belief was in New Culture Movement and other modernization the Heaven God, including the Heaven God concept, the endeavors, beliefs in Heaven and ancestral worship as Heaven and Fate, the sacrifice ritual, and the relevant well as religious aspects of Confucianism were labeled as institutions; Confucian scholars were the key players “superstition”. Especially since the middle of the twentieth and this system was based on the Confucian doctrine century, the tradition of Confucianism was mainly seen (He, 2000). “The original-indigenous religion” system of as a historical burden to wipe out. Nevertheless, this He is the theological foundation and the basic concepts reached the highest level during the Cultural Revolution. of Chinese religion. Because of theological foundations, Even at the beginning of the reform and opening up, the religious system of the belief in Heaven and ancestral many so-called cultural elites still regarded Confucianism worship enabled Confucian scholars to influence the as the root of China’s backwardness. That is to say, in the political operation as supervisors of emperors, and to current political system and mainstream discourse of the educate ordinary people as teachers/masters in daily Chinese culture, Confucianism is not a determining factor. life. The universal acceptance of belief in Heaven and It merely acts as one of the many different cultural forms. ancestral worship provided the imperial powers that Tu Weiming, as a leading scholar of New Confucianism were with an important religious basis for the political since the 1980s, admitted that “The rules of the game Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 32  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na determining the relevance of Confucianism to China’s Rong Gave away Bigger Pears (孔融让梨)8, while today’s modern transformation were changed so remarkably that children are probably more familiar with Ultraman, most attempts to present a Confucian idea for its own Transformers, and so on. sake were ignored outside a small coterie of ivory-tower The decline of Confucian tradition: There is no academicians. Thus, the goals of modernization and doubt that Confucianism has had a nightmare in the past economic development overrode broader humanistic and 100 years, since it lingered mainly as a residue of Chinese communitarian concerns” (Tu, 2004). cultural tradition. During the 20th century, the ideal value Confucianism is no longer the core of education: In and instrumental value of Confucianism were discouraged the traditional period of China, the influence of Confucian and despised by the revolutionaries, and proclaimed thoughts and moral teachings to the Chinese people as fetters to people’s ambition in a changing society. It and Chinese societies mainly came from Confucianism is therefore difficult to find any individual today who is embedded within the educational system. Thus, this main strongly committed to Confucian values. In contemporary way of selecting officials—staffed the officialdom of the Hong Kong, Taiwan, or the Mainland, Confucianism government, by providing moral values—penetrates every hardly appears in official state ideology in any form. We fiber of social life. But, the modern educational system have visited the Ye Shi Museum (叶适博物馆) in Rui’an, and the socialization method hardly have the content Zhejiang Province several times. Ye Shi was the most of Confucian classics and moral teaching, and very few famous figure of Yongjia School9 of Neo-Confucianism in people educated in schools after 1949 were familiar Song Dynasty. It is gratifying that his descendants have with traditional Chinese literacy. Ironically, people born built a private museum for him today after one thousand in the 1950s and 1960s began to know Confucius and years. Now, the museum is under the management of Mr. Mencius, and some of their teachings, probably from the Ye, and he admitted frankly that he had only known there propaganda articles of “anti-Lin Biao and anti-Confucius” was a Xinshui Gong (心水公, the title of Ye Shi) among their campaign in the 1970s. An old gentleman we interviewed, many ancestors, but had known nothing about Ye Shi for who was born in the early years of the Republic of China, years. Until recent years, when somebody came with an had studied for 6 years in the new-style of schooling, initiative for building the museum, he began to know that and yet was able to recite some of Confucian Classic Xinshui Gong was the famous Confucian master Ye Shi texts, for example, Four Books (四书) and Five Classics ( in Song Dynasty, and that his ideas on practical learning 五经)7; he was not a calligrapher, but he had always and applying Confucian doctrine to real world problems written with Chinese writing in brush pen, even at an were recognized as the theory of the economic success in age of over 80 years. As most other people who have Wenzhou. The ancestral temple of Clan Ye is not far from received education after the new Cultural Movement, he the Ye Shi Museum. There are many people who come to embraced science and looked down upon folk culture as worship their ancestors there. Naturally, the existence of superstition. However, Confucianism and even the core the museum has provided more rationality to the activities values of traditional intellectuals had been socialized of ancestral worship of the ancestral temple of Clan Ye. into his personality. The main contents studied by the Cheung and King had interviewed altogether 41 contemporary students are built on various scientific entrepreneurs between 1997 and 2000 from mainland knowledge, multiple humanistic traditions based on China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia. secular concept, and other instrumental skills, including Their research had found that the Confucian entrepreneurs a variety of foreign languages, computers, etc. Chinese students spend so much time and so much effort on foreign language study, playing video games, and online 8  In the Eastern Han Dynasty, there was a person called Kong Rong. chatting. In other words, the modern education has He had five older brothers and one younger brother. One day, his fa- ther bought some pears. He picked one of the largest pears and deli- little relationship with Confucianism. People born in the berately gave it to Kong Rong. But Kong Rong shook his head and pi- 50s and 60s still socialize with the stories such as Kong cked up the smallest one. Kong Rong said: “I am younger, so I should eat the smaller pear, and brothers should eat the bigger ones.” 9  Yongjia School (永嘉学派) is a neo-Confucianism School com- posed mostly of philosophers from Wenzhou Prefecture in Zhejiang province. Yongjia School stressed practical learning and application 7  The Four Books (四书) are Chinese classic texts illustrating the of Confucian doctrine to real world problems. This school had im- core value and belief systems in Confucianism；The Five Classics ( portant influence on later thinkers from Zhejiang province, including 五经) are five pre-Qin Chinese books that form part of the traditional Wang Shouren and Huang Zongxi, who were the most important phi- Confucian canon. losophers in the Ming and Qing periods. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   33 were thus a rapidly disappearing social type. “Since to go to the folks for observing the Confucian orientation Confucianism has long lost its institutional support, of Chinese people in everyday life; while on the other it lingers on mainly as a residue of the Chinese cultural hand, going to the folks also means to transfer vulgarized tradition. It is therefore difficult to find individuals today Confucianism as the basic practice of socialization so that who are strongly committed to Confucian values, especially Confucianism can become the mandatory reason and in the business world, where instrumental rationality has conscience of the people (Chen, 2011). In fact, going to come to dominate (Cheung and King, 2004)”. folks is not the artificial or temporary expedient strategy Indeed, although the authors had noticed that they of Confucianism to obtain existence in modern China. could not be certain, prior to the actual interview whether The current situation is that the elite version of Confucian the individual would fit their definition of a Confucian movement has achieved little success; but, there are entrepreneur, a majority of the entrepreneurs they many different versions of revival of Confucianism at the interviewed could be considered as what Peter Berger grassroots level. referred to as “vulgarized Confucians”. Cheung and King’s Religious Confucianism and new religious study adopted the term Peter Berger used for denoting movement: Confronting the widespread anomie the Confucian tradition that was embedded in the phenomenon in modern society, Daniel Bell stated that: “I Chinese people’s normative and behavioral orientations will risk an unfashionable answer—the return in Western instead of the “high” Confucianism of the Mandarin society of some conception of religion” (Bell, 1976:29). elite in traditional China. As one of their respondents, The real problem of modernity is the problem of belief— Mr. L frankly said, “As far as books on Confucianism or to use an unfashionable term, a spiritual crisis—because Confucius are concerned, I really do not know much. the new anchorages have proved illusory and the old However, as far as the Confucianism or the Confucius as ones have become submerged (Bell, 1976:28). As China discussed in the newspapers are concerned, then, [we is facing a similar moral predicament in modern times, are subject to] Confucian influences, especially for a long efforts for moral reconstruction need the regression of time due to our educational background, [and] the family Confucianism as the cultural capitals. Confucianism had background”. The Confucian values, which are now part of long lost its institutional support, mainly serving as a universal ethics, unapparently identified the connection traditional residue for decades. Therefore, it is the time with classical Confucian literature. We observed the for religious Confucianism to gain the opportunities with same situation from Kang Xiaoguang’s study on the respect to faith and mysticism. The religious character of renaissance of traditional Confucianism. The research and Confucianism, which originated from preliminary period questionaries’ design had showed that Confucianism was of Chinese civilization, has become an essential content treated as the major elements of national culture together of the innovations and developments of the newly- with Buddhism and Taoism (Kang, 2012). developing religions movements caused by contemporary Many scholars have pointed out that the modern issues. This “unique Confucian spiritual orientation scholars with Confucian orientation should give up the has been embraced by most, if not all, major religious traditional fantasy—either to serve the emperor as a traditions. Like the Confucians, the secular is regarded successful Confucian scholar, or to serve the commons as as sacred, or, more dramatically, the separation between a scholastic master (出则必为帝者师，处则必为天下万世 the defiled earth and sublime Heaven is rejected” (Tu, 师) (Wang, 1960:209). Additionally, they should withdraw 2012:85). from the myths of political Confucianism and be cast aside In the past 30 years, a variety of non-institutional to the general for answering the questions of ordinary religious rituals have been revived and developed, which, people in order to reconstruct the ethics and values of to some extents, has reflected the wide penetration of the Confucianism in the countryside, communities, campuses, religious Confucianism. Ancestral worship, supported by and all other places where human activities takes place the idea of filial piety of Confucianism, is practiced nation- (Yan, 2007). As a cultural identity and spiritual symbol, wide in the modern society. The recompilation of family the cultural Confucians today must face the golden rule of genealogy is popular in many areas all over China, and Confucianism—what you do not wish for yourself, do not it involves people from both rural and urban areas. Many do it to others(己所不欲，勿施于人) (Analects--Weiling), clan organizations have published their own newsletters and if you wish to be established seek also to establish or other periodicals, both in the electronic format and in others(己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人) (Analects--Yung hard copies. So far, the revival of ancestral veneration has Yey). Instead of relying on the upper line, it is better to drawn the attention of many scholars (Chan, Madsen and take the mass line—that is, on one hand, it is necessary Unger, 1992; Jing, 1996; Wang and Feuchrwang, 1997; Yang Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 34  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na and Liu, 2000, etc). It is noteworthy that Qingming Festival religions in their developing process is that the religious was restored as a public holiday in 2008, which was orientation of Confucianism has gotten more obvious reserved for ancestral worship. In the process of the revival with their supplementation with Buddhism and Taoism. of popular religions in China, the so called “ethicpolitical The new religious movement in Taiwan has demonstrated cult” (Yang, 1961:144) has provided the necessary support this trend. For example, Xiaism11 (夏教) in Taiwan is and the cultural legality. For example, the temple of Lin quite popular, which has been identified as a belief Xiangru10, which is located in Qiangcun, Handan, Hebei with Confucian morality and ancestral worship, Taoist Province, includes an exhibition of the historical Lin meditation techniques, and the pursuit of enlightenment Xiangru with an emphasis on the cultural tradition of (taken from Buddhism), and has been named as harmony and patriotism, providing a civic education for Sanyijiao—Three Teachings in One12. From the founder of all the visitors (Fan and Chen, forward coming). There are Sanyijiao—Lin Zhaoen’s writings—to the Heaven to the many similar examples. From Fan’s study on Shenzhen, confession of Xiaism practitioners, we could observe the a city which lies on the border between mainland China development of the religiousness of Confucianism. The and Hong Kong, she discovered that the dynamics of practice and accomplishment of Confucian moral life are modernization interacted with the search for spiritual dependent on external god’s will, religious authority of meaning. Middle-class residents in Shenzhen draw moral reciprocity, and initiation into the ‘Heart Method’ of selectively on perennial elements of China’s indigenous personal spiritual self-cultivation (Cheng, 1988:245). cultural tradition to support a personal quest. But in this In Taiwan, the new phenomenon of religion has new religious milieu, traditional elements were readily given the traditional religious concepts and symbols new adapted to suit new life circumstances (Fan, Whitehead chances of expression in the rapid social development of and Whithead, 2010:228). Master Jingkong, who is quite the country. The development of “Divine Teachings of the popular, has explained the Buddhist classics with a Confucian Religion” or Ruzong shenjiao (儒宗神教, “Ru” combination of Taoism and Confucianism. Since the ideas means Confucian or Confucianism) in Taiwan is a good of Confucianism have diffused into people’s life, people example. In the highly diversified religious marketplace have embraced Confucianism as significant social capitals of Taiwan, the development of the liturgy and doctrine in their life and as necessary issues for their spiritual well- of phoenix hall (鸾堂) has furnished an enlightening being and religious movement. example of the appropriation of the elements, which has The religious Confucianism is widely embedded into been perceived as Confucian within popular religion, for people’s life in the world today. At the same time, all kinds the purpose of inventing a tradition for a new religious of institutional religions are diffused and marginalized movement and carving out a distinctive niche. By in secularized modern societies, which give chances to examining this use of the label “Ru” for self-appellation, the appearance and development of new religions. The we will be able to get a first glimpse of popular forms of newly developed religions and religious phenomena are Confucianism in Taiwanese culture (Clart, 2003). So-called incorporated with Confucian ethics, ritualistic concepts, phoenix halls are spread over the Island of Taiwan with and social care. Moreover, all the so-called new religions spirit-writing cults identifying themselves explicitly as and religious phenomena are not entirely new—it Confucian. Gradually, “Divine Teachings of the Confucian is, in fact, a blend of modern issues with traditional Religion” or Ruzong shenjiao (儒宗神教) has become the religious elements. The integration of three religions— general name of phoenix halls (Wang, 1997:51). Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism—was inherent in Yiguandao (一贯道), a folk sectarian religion which folk society, and new religions mostly fused with diverse means Consistent Way, was highly denounced both in religious traditions. In modern society, “besides the mainland China and Taiwan. After the end of Martial Law three traditional religions (Confucianism, Buddhism and in Taiwan in 1987, Yiguandao developed dramatically, and Taoism), the growing folk sectarian movement conducted their belief in syncretism of Confucianism, Buddhism and 11  Xiaism (夏教) is another name of Sanyijiao (三一教). Taoism” (Ding, 2004:362). The outstanding feature of new 12  Sanyijiao (三一教)，Three-in-One (Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism) was founded by Lin Zhao’en (林兆恩，1517–98) in Puti- an, Fujian. After his death, Lin has been apotheosized as the ‘Lord of 10  Lin Xiangru (蔺相如) served as a government official in the early the Three-in-One’. His disciples developed his cult and his religious kingdom of Zhao dynasty. Even today, the citizens of Handan City movement in a series of splinter groups. It has its independent ritual recall the skill and courage displayed by this man during his long tradition, similar to those of Taoism and Buddhism. Its ritual specia- life which he devoted to promoting the welfare of the village and its lists perform communal offerings (jiao) and funeral services (gong- inhabitants. de), along with individual rites. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   35 even returned to the mainland. Yiguandao represents a (with his speech of letting children read classics) have moralistic society, with its objective to save all humanity supported them. The motto of Fengyi Wong (1864-1937), from the last calamity. All its followers are encouraged to who was living in period of the Republic of China and follow the moral practices, especially Confucian ethics had been honored as the Confucian Huineng (儒学慧能)13, and virtues with a combination of Buddhism and Taoism. has become re-prevalent. The list goes on. All these have In the Yiguandao represents a moralistic society, with shown that religious expression is an essential part of objective to help save all human from the last calamity. Confucianism. Another cause for concern is that religious The members are encouraged to follow moral practices Confucianism has gotten the chance to have systematical such as: The “five ethics” and “eight virtues” (from development in the form of religious institutions— Confucianism) Vegetarianism, and abstinence from the religious practices and the innovations. Religious alcohol and tobacco (as in Chinese Buddhism) as: In Confucianism today is trying to make contributions to the globalized world today, Yiguandao has spread from renew social and moral identity, to solve the social and the Taiwanese Island to some countries in Southeast psychological problems caused by drastic changes via Asia. Getting rid of the suspicious mystery and carrying traditional moral consciousness, ritualistic performance, the Confucian torch, Yiguandao has emphasized its and the mysterious faiths; it has adjusted its organizational inheritance and development of traditional culture. Its form—which used to come under pressures of from highly understanding of the principle of the heaven has led to institutional local Christian groups. However, they provide its learning of the various cosmologies in traditional more public service, paying attention to individual Chinese culture, and its inheriting of the comprehensive sufferings, and having collective activities to promote wisdom of the management of the Chinese. The heart mutual care so that the development and influence of of the thoughts of Yiguandao has been tied to religious the organizations in local community can be achieved. cosmologies. Although Yiguandau included different Meanwhile, by incorporating it with the discourse of the elements from many religions, certainly, it has claimed mainstream ideology, it has gotten more space to develop. that it was “Rujiao” (religious Confucianism). As an illustration, Confucian Congregation (Rujiao Daotan In the ideology of mainstream China, the situation 儒教道坛) in Northern Fujian has grown rapidly in the of Confucianism is still quite obscure. The “Confucian last ten years by promoting Confucian classic reading, revival” of the first decade of the new century was a highly practicing simplified Confucian-style rite, and healing fragmented and scattered phenomenon. The reason folks’ sickness (Chen and Fan, forth coming). behind this fragmentation was because the reference to It is obvious that both the continuation of tradition Confucianism was translated into a patchwork of different, and the innovation of religion are responses to the non-coordinated initiatives (educative, “religious”, world around us; it seems that religious Confucianism cultural, patrimonial, commercial, political, etc.), and has supported the cultural and ethical appeals of the was carried out by people stemming from all classes of newly developed religions, and has resonated with society. Although the authorities usually use the icon of people by sacred power and magical efficacy. In history, Confucianism or Confucius under its cultural banner, it “Confucianism set up no god as the premise of its is virtually difficult to avoid touching the religious part of teachings, and its basic principles were developed mainly Confucianism (Billioud, 2010). For example, the Chinese from pragmatic considerations. Even the infusion of government commemorated Confucius with a high-profile Buddhism ideas into Neo-Confucianism did not alter ceremony, which was broadcasted by the China Central its basic this-worldly orientation. Confucianism did Television (CCTV) and reported by hundreds of domestic address itself to the ultimate meaning of life and death, and foreign media synchronously. Furthermore, the but only in terms of moral responsibility to man, not to Qingming Festival, which is mainly for ancestral worship, any supernatural power” (Yang, 1961: 26). Confronted has been declared as a statutory holiday. The folk activities by the new questions of meaning and purpose today, of Confucianism (“Rujiao”) are even more widely spread— religious Confucianism in local society is incorporated for example, the numerous descendants of Confucius with newly developed religions by taking Confucianism over China have sacrificed their famous ancestor, built as its tradition, and the divine power to receive efficacy their ancestral temples, and recompiled the genealogies of their own clan. Schools for reading Confucian classics 13  Huineng (慧能AD 638–AD 713) was a Chinese Chán monastic have been established around the country, and people who was one of the most important figures in the entire Buddhism such as Fei Pang (with his Yidan School), Qing Jiang tradition. Huineng has been traditionally viewed as the Sixth and (with his Yangming Jingshe, 阳明精舍), and Caigui Wang Last Patriarch of Chán Buddhism. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 36  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na [Access from: http://iwr.cass.cn/rjyjs/lw/201101/ for accomplishing its teachings. t20110117_5940.html]. In his book on the desecularization of the world, Peter Chen, Lai陈来, 1995. Rujia Lunli yu Xiandaihua儒家伦理与现代化 Berger had pointed out that the assumption that we live [Ethnics and Modernization of Confucianism]. In: Jian Qiao 乔 in a secularized world is false. Even in his early work, he 健and Naigu Pan潘乃谷, eds, Zhongguoren De Guannian Yu had contributed to the theory of this literature. His general Xingwei 《中国人的观念与行为》[The Notion and behavior of Chinese], Tianjin 天津: Tianjin Re nmin Chubanshe天津人民出 prediction was that “the world of the next century will not 版社. be less religious than the world of today” (Berger, 1999:12) Chen, Na and Lizhu Fan, forth coming. The Birth of a New Religion Indeed, human beings have never given up their pursuits --On the Development of the Confucian Congregation in of the ultimate questions—human destiny, suffering, and Southeast China. death. There are still a number of crucial questions facing Cheng, Chih-Ming鄭志明, 1998. Taiwan Minjian Zongjiao Jieshe《 human cultures today. Therefore, the religious traditions 臺灣民間宗教結社》[Taiwan Folk Religions and Associations]. Chiaya嘉義: Nanhua Guanli Xueyuan南華管理學院 (Nanhua that thrive in contemporary cultures retain many elements Management College). that have their source in humanity’s earliest religious Cheung, Tak Sing, and Ambrose Yeo-chi King, 2004. Righteousness expression: “Nothing is ever lost…aspects of tribal and and Profitableness: The Moral Choices of Contemporary archaic religion survives among us” (Bellah, 1970). Confucian Entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 54 (3), Religious Confucianism is a part of the thriving traditions. pp. 245-260. Fan, Lizhu 范丽珠, 2005. Dangdai Zhongguoren Zongjiao Xinyang Therefore, we emphasize the existence and modern De Bianqian: Shenzhen Minjian Zongjiao Xintu De Tianye value of the religious character of Confucianism and Yanjiu《當代中國人宗教信仰的變遷: 深圳民間宗教信徒的 explain its real effect on religious innovation and the 田野研究》[The Transition of the Modern Chinese Religious development, which, to a certain extent, can help Beliefs: the Fieldwork of the Believers of the Folk Religions in us interpret the fate of Confucianism in our current Shenzhen], Taipei臺北: Weber Publication International Ltd.韋 circumstance. Religious Confucianism is diffused in 伯文化. Fan, Lizhu, James Whitehead and Evelyn Whitehead, 2010. Sociology the living world, and it plays a significant role within of Religion: Religion and China. Beijing: Current Press. the new religious movements. Hence, we can claim that Fan, Lizhu范丽珠, and Na Chen陈纳 2012. Zhongguo Minjian Confucianism is still alive today, and that it nurtures Xinyang Ji Qi Xiandai Jiazhi De Yanjiu中国民间信仰及其现代 religious organizations which have adopted Confucian 价值的研究[The Research on the Chinese folk belief and its moral principles. modern value]. In: Ze Jin金泽 and Yonghui Qiu邱永辉, eds, Blue Book of Religion—Annual Report on Religions in China (2012) 《宗教蓝皮书•中国宗教报告2012年》, Beijing北京: Reference China Social Science Press社会科学出版社. Fan, Lizhu and Na Chen, forth coming. Revival and Development of Popular Religion in China Over the Past 30 Years. Bell, Daniel, 1976. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. Fei, Xiaotong 费孝通, 1992. A Moment at Cmetery of Confucius. Du NY:Basic Books. Shu《读书》[Reading Books], Vol. 9. Bellah, Robert N., 1970. Religious Evolution. Beyond Belief: Essays Ge, Zhaoguang葛兆光, 2007. An Intellectual History of China on Religion in a Post-Traditional World. NY: Harper & Row, (Volume One): Knowledge, Thought, and Belief before the pp.20-50. Seventh Century CE 《中国思想史 (第一卷) :七世纪前中国的知 Berger, Peter, 1999. The Desecularization of the world: Resurgent 识, 思想与信仰世界》, Shanghai上海: Fudan University Press Religion and World Politics, edited by Peter Berger. MI: Wm. B. 复旦大学出版社. Eerdmans Publishing. He, Guanghu何光沪, 2000. Zhongguo Wenhua De Gen Yu Hua—Tan Billioud, Sébastien, 2010. Carrying the Confucian Torch to the Ruxue De “Fanben” Yu “Kaixin”中国文化的根与花—谈儒学的 Masses: The Challenge of Structuring the Confucian Revival “返本”与“开新”[The Roots and Flowers of Chinese Culture— in the People’s Republic of China. Oriens Extremus, 49, Discussing on the Restoration and Innovation of Ruxue], pp.201-224. Zongjiao Guannian De Benzhi Yu Shangdi Guan宗教观念的本质 Chan, Anita, Richard Madsen and Jonathon Unger, 1992. Chen 与上帝观[The Essen of Religious Notion and the View on God]. village under Mao and Deng. CA: University of California Press. In: Ren, Jiyu任继愈, ed, Rujiao Wenti Zhenglunji《儒教问题争 Chang, Kuang-Chih张光直, 2002. Meishu, Shenhua Yu Jisi《美术, 论集》[Analects of arguments of Confucian questions], Beijing 神话与祭祀》[The Art, the Myth and the Sacrifice]. Shenyang沈 北京: Zongjiao Wenhua Chubanshe宗教文化出版社. 阳: Liaoning Education Press辽宁教育出版社. Jing, Jun 1996. The Temple of Memories:History, Power, and Morality Clart, Philip, 2003. Confucius and the Mediums: Is there a ‘Popular in a Chinese Village. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Confucianism’? T’oung Pao, Second Series, Vol.89, Fasc. (1/3), Kang, Xiaoguang, 2012. A Study of the Renaissance of Traditional pp.1-38, Confucian Culture in Contemporary China”. In: Fenggang Chen, Jinguo陈进国, 2011. Zhonghuajiao: Dangdai Rujiao De Yang and Joseph Tamney, eds., Confucianism and Spiritual Sanzhong Shijian Xingtai中华教:当代儒教的三种实践形态 Traditions in Modern China and Beyond. Leiden: Brill. [Chineseism: Three Practice Forms of Modern Confucian]. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   37 King, Ambrose, 1983. Rujia Lunli yu Jingji Fazhan: Weibo Xueshuo from: http://isbrt.ruc.edu.cn/pol04/Article/chinese/c_ Chong Tan儒家伦理与经济发展: 韦伯学说重探[Confucian Ethic general/200412/1433.html, 2004.12.13]. and Economic Development: Revisiting Weber’s Scholarship]. Tu, Weiming, 2011. Tongguo Duihua Rang Renlei ‘Ruanzhaolu’—Tu Lianheyuekan联合月刊, Vol. 25. Weiming Yu Robert • Bellah Guanyu ‘Zhouxin Wenming’ De King, Ambrose, 1992. Zhongguo Shehui Yu Wenhua《中國社會與 Duihua通过对话让人类‘软著陆’-----杜维明与罗伯特•贝 文化》[Chinese Society and Culture], Hongkong 香港: Oxford 拉关于‘轴心文明’的对话[Let human ‘land softly’ through University Press牛津大學出版社. dialogue—the dialogue on civilization of axis between Du King, Ambrose, 1996. The Transformation of Confucianism in Hong Weiming and Robert Bellah]. Wenweipo《文汇报》, 2011.11.21. Kong. 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Ting, Jen-chieh 丁仁傑, 2004. Shehui Fenhua Yu Zongjiao Zhidu [Access from: http://www.chinakongzi.org/rjwh/ddmj/ Biangian—Dangdai Taiwan Xinxing Zongjiao Xianxiang De yanbinggang/200706/t20070605_2207540.htm, 2007.6.5]. Shehuixue Kaocha《社會分化與宗教制度變遷－－當代台灣 Yang, Ching Kun, 1961. Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of 新興宗教現象的社會學考察》[Social Differentiation and the Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of Their Change of Religious Institution], Taipei臺北: Lingking聯經. Historical Factors. CA: University of California Press. Tu, Weiming, 2004. Geren, Shequn Yu Dao: Gudai Qunti Pipan De Yang Shanhua杨善华 and Liu Xiaojing刘小京, 2000. Some Ziwo Yishi De Chuxian个人, 社群与道:古代群体批判的自我 Theoretical Issues of Recent Research on China Rural Lineages. 意识的出现[Individual, community and Dao: the Appearance Chinese Social Sciences Studies, Vol. 5. of the Self—Recognition in Ancient Group Criticism]. [Access Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 38  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na 关于“儒”的宗教性与儒教在当代中国的复兴 范丽珠 陈纳1 尴尬。 5不过，在日益全球化的时代，使用彼此共通的 “儒”有几“性” 话语体系沟通人类关注的话题，有助于来自不同文化体 系的人相互理解。就大多数中国人而言，其宗教信仰难 英文的“Confucianism”，在中文至少有三个不同的概 以很清晰地表达的原因，在于其中混合着儒释道的信仰 念来对应:儒家, 儒学, 儒教。刘述先也曾区分“儒”的三 传统，还有普遍的祖先崇拜。这种状况，恐怕会令那些 种不同层面:精神的儒家，指孔孟, 程朱, 陆王精神的大传 来自亚伯拉罕宗教文化背景的人有些摸不着头脑。作为 统；政治化的儒家，指汉代以来作为朝廷意理的传统； 一个中国的读书人，我们承继着不少来自孔孟学说的价 民间的儒家，指三教流行在民间的价值信仰。2 值传统，关于君子该如何有操守，心与性的修炼等；作 每当讨论“儒”的问题，我们难免会有些犹豫，所 为一个在社会上安身立命者，我们努力地尽到自己的责 论者到底指的是政治的“儒”，还是学术的“儒”，还 任；作为一个生活世界的人，我们用各种方式达成生命 是化民成俗, 与佛道神秘信仰结合的“儒”？近些年，在 之我与自然界之我之间的和谐。 我们致力于宗教传统的民族志研究以及深化对中国文化 在现实世界中，我们发现各种各样“儒”之存在的 核心价值的认识时，发现不同层面和不同形式的“儒” 现象，即上述的几种不同层面的“儒”。首先，有少数 的复兴已经成为一个无法回避社会现象。那么，我们所 知识精英在学术象牙塔中研究儒的精神, 历史, 典籍，甚 关注并正在复兴的“儒”究竟是什么意义上的“儒”， 至相关的语言, 语意表达等等。其中有些学者在致力于 恐怕是学术界需要正视的问题。如果从孔子, 孟子等圣人 通过对儒家经典的解说与推介试图实现“儒教”的影响 生活的春秋与战国之交的时代 (雅斯贝尔斯所谓“轴心时 力，如杜维明从上世纪七八十年代以来的大量努力。 代”) 算起，“儒”的传统已经二千五百年了；如果将 伴随着现代化的进程，社会上出现了越发严重的道 孔孟作为商周以降中华文明传统的集大成者，那么与“ 德缺失、信任危机和社会失序的情况，促使人们思考， 儒”相关的历史要更为久远。“儒”自汉朝开始作为文 当代中国人应该如何重新审视自己的文化传统，应该如 化正统, 王朝统治的伦理基础, 社会精英思想与价值的主 何从传统价值中获得精神营养，于是儒学重新走进人们 要来源，以及教化民众的核心内容，从而形成了多重性 的视野。很多学者发现，中国传统文化的恢复与发展， 格，也导致了有关“儒”的性属之争论。 (有关儒学与儒 社区生活以及个人透过宗教活动来寻求意义的同时也获 教的具体定义或定位问题，学界有不同的声音，不是本 得了道德支持。6 早在九十年代初，费孝通先生在访问 研究的兴趣所在。) 3 曲阜以后写下的一篇小文中指出:“‘文化大革命’中有 近代以来，无论对孔子或儒学的看法如何，不断有 人要破坏孔庙，群众不让，被保护了下来。为什么老百 学者试图将中国文化传统中的“Confucianism”论证为 姓要保护它？说明它代表着一个东西，代表着中国人最 宗教。4实际上，在今天的中国号称自己信奉“儒教”者 宝贵的东西。”“各国都应当有自己的思想家，中国人 并不在多数。恐怕不少人都有过这样的经历---- 被问及 口这么多，应当在世界的思想之林有所表现”，而儒的 你信仰什么宗教的时候不知如何作答。人类学家李亦园 传统之精髓就是中国对世界重要的贡献。7 多年前就曾经提到过中国人面对这样问题而出现的文化 同时，儒家思想观念的现实存在与现代化相生相长 的现象，特别是其伦理实践的宗教性，早在八十年代东 亚经济开始起飞的时代就受到广泛关注，不少学者发现 儒家伦理所蕴含的着某种超越精神，与韦伯所揭示的新 教伦理有异曲同工之处。儒学被认为与现代生活形式 1  范丽珠，复旦大学社会学教授, 博士生导师，复旦-UC当代中国中 心执行副主任；陈纳，复旦大学社会发展研究中心研究员。 5 李亦园发现:外国人通常总喜欢问我们，你们中国原来信的是什么 2 刘述先编：《儒家思想与现代世界》，台北：中央研究院中国文 教的啊？而我们“总觉得难以正面回答”，“其实答不出来我们自 哲研究所，1997年，导言，第1页。 己信什么教是有其症结所在的，这一症结在于问题问的不对，西方 3 长期提倡儒学价值的学者杜维明最近提到:很多人在做中国研究或 人一向以自己的立场，以信仰超自然一定要成为一‘教’，所以会 者宗教研究时，很想知道儒学是否是宗教？对此，我一般会反问他 问别人信什么‘教’；假如他们都能体会别人的信仰不一定要成为 们什么是宗教？当有人说儒教决不是宗教时，那么可以推测出，他 一个‘教’，而把问题问成‘你们的信仰是怎样的’，那么问题就 对于宗教的定义是根据传统性宗教来定义的。而如果有人说儒教是 容易回答了。”见李亦园:《宗教与神话论集》，台北:立绪文化事 一种宗教时，你就要很小心，因为他可能考虑把各种不同意识形态 业有限公司1998年，第168-169页。 作为宗教。“通过对话让人类‘软着陆’-----杜维明与罗伯特•贝 6 Lizhu Fan, James Whitehead and Evelyn Whitehead, Sociology of 拉关于‘轴心文明’的对话”，《文汇报》，2011年11月21日。 Religion: Religion and China, Beijing: Current Press 2010, p. 221. 4  例如，康有为, 任继愈, 李申等。 7 费孝通，“孔林片思”，《读书》，1992年第9期。 Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   39 相契合并助力于东亚的现代化，该观点有些自相矛盾， 中华信仰的神学基础与“儒”的宗 但是在儒家伦理和日本、韩国、台湾、香港、新加坡、 中国大陆以及越南等国家地区的发展之间，“选择性亲 教性 和”的观点被广泛地接受。 8如金耀基曾经提到“资本 儒的宗教性特征从二千多年前儒的出现伊始就已然存 主义在香港的发展﹐……是被文化‘条件’所推动的﹐ 在。只不过在被定为一尊的封建时代，儒的政治正统和 而这种文化条件则是由一种转化了的儒家观念和思想所 学术正统的面向过去强大，往往使得弥漫于在生活层面 提供﹐我把这种转化的儒学称为‘工具性的理性传统主 的宗教性隐而不彰。正如杨庆堃所揭示的那样，在中国 义’。……这是一种广为市民在日常生活中所依循的儒 的宗教传统中，超自然领域的建构与现实生活世界非常 家信念和价值观念。”9由于民众社会实践中普遍存在的 相似，而儒家传统则透过政治伦理信仰的途径，以民众 化民成俗的儒家价值，由于强调世俗功业、崇德报功等 接受的超自然方式来实施教化。《易经》有言，“圣人 具有的内在超越价值，使得儒学不仅没有成为现代化发 以神道设教，而天下服矣。”12 展的障碍，反而在儒家文化圈经济发展的过程中发挥了 “儒”的宗教性面向可谓是与生俱来的。春秋晚期 精神动力之作用。 10因而，正如金耀基所说的“社会儒 孔子创立的儒家学说本来就是在 “殷周奴隶制时期的 学”，人们越来越关注在政治和学术“儒”以外的，民 天命神学和祖宗崇拜的宗教思想”基础上不断发展形成 众日常生活中的“儒”之教化的影响力。 的，13杨庆堃确认中国古代宗教 ---- 他称之为“中国本土 在自发的“儒学 (教) 复兴”的社会潮流中，民间读 的宗教”14 ---- 的核心是“对天和命运的信仰，对占卜的 经活动悄然兴起。如北京的一耽学堂, 上海的孟母堂等 广泛接纳，结合阴阳五行理论，强调对祖先的祭祀与崇 等。读经配合学习礼仪, 社会公益活动的参与，儒学 (教) 拜。”15葛兆光在研究中注意到，殷商时代人们心目中神 无疑给予了社会运动最现成的精神支持。在各种纷繁复 秘力量的秩序化，祖先崇拜与王权结合产生的观念秩序 杂的宗教复兴, 宗教创新现象中，也出现了以儒教为号 化，祭祀与占卜仪式中所表现的知识系统秩序化。16当人 召，融汇三教信仰仪式以及民间宗教信仰内容的实践。 们检索辨识现存的甲骨文字时，就立刻会发现甲骨文字 有些典型的案例反映出，在民间借助宗族传统的逐渐复 反映出那个时代祖先崇拜的现象几乎无处不在，并且与 兴儒教成为民众信仰的重要部分。景军在其《神堂记 自然神以及“帝”或“上帝”等神祇毫不排斥地融合一 忆》研究中，讨论了当地孔氏建起了供奉孔子与当地祖 体。 先的庙宇，称为“孔庙”，而不是“祖祠”，在大川的 商周朝时期祖先崇拜表现出的有关社会秩序的观 宗教生活, 亲属意识以及权力结构的重构中扮演了核心角 念，体现了整个“精英文化圈中”将社会政治秩序与宇 色。11在我们对浙江南部宗族文化研究中，也有类似的例 宙秩序融为一体的宗教观，并将这种文化基因深植于中 子，苍南县龙港镇的孔氏家族建起了家族祭祀场所孔氏 华文明的脉络中。这种秩序的价值在于“作为一种宇宙 宗祠，同时也建起了开放给社会祭拜孔子的“孔庙”。 的隐喻，它表示了高高在上的神的权威之下，以家庭性 从当今社会实践的角度来看，尽管“儒”的政治正 的和谐而凝聚起来的实体与能量的世界”。17而这种宗教 统性的地位不复存在，但是无法否认的是“儒”的传统 观毫无疑问潜移默化地影响到了儒学的价值, 理念以及仪 仍然以其多面性存在于社会生活，这与中华文明本身的 式内容。张光直指出中华文明“连续性”的特色，“它是在 丰富与复杂性相符合，同样也与中国宗教实践的弥漫性 一个整体性的宇宙形成论的框架里面创造出来的”，社 特征相呼应。相比较起来，具有宗教面向的“儒”在当 会组织结构中的血缘关系从氏族社会延续下来，而巫觋 今中国有着更为生动的表现。 12 杨庆堃，《中国社会中的宗教——宗教的现代社会功能与其历 史因素之研究》，范丽珠主译。上海:上海人民出版社2007，第142 页。 13 参见任继愈，“论儒教的形成”，《中国社会科学》，1980年 第一期，第61-62页 14 杨庆堃，《中国社会中的宗教——宗教的现代社会功能与其历 史因素之研究》，范丽珠主译。上海:上海人民出版社2007，第23 8 Tu Weiming, “Confucian Spirituality in Contemporary China”, in －24页。 Confucianism and Spiritual Traditions in Modern China and Beyond, 15 杨庆堃，《中国社会中的宗教——宗教的现代社会功能与其历 edited by Fenggang Yang and Joseph Tamney, Leiden: Brill 2012, p. 史因素之研究》，范丽珠主译。上海:上海人民出版社2007，第225 79. 页。 9 参见金耀基，《中国社会与文化》﹐香港:牛津大学出版社1992 16 参见葛兆光，《中国思想史》第一卷，《七世纪前中国的知识, 年。 思想与信仰世界》，上海:复旦大学出版社2007年，第20，23，26 10 参见陈来，“儒家伦理与现代化”，《中国人的观念与行为》 页。 ﹐主编乔健﹑潘乃谷﹐天津人民出版社1995年；宋光宇，《宗教与 17 Benjamin Schwartz, The World of Thought in Ancient China, Cam- 社会》, 台北: 东大1995。 bridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985, p. 22, 11 Jun Jing, The Temple of Memories, CA: University of Stanford 1996. 24. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 40  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na 文化在古代中国政治中居于核心地位。 18也就是指出了 文中，何光沪认为“所谓儒教，非指儒学或儒家之整 一脉相传的中华文明“连续性”地将其宗教特质传递下 体，而是指殷商以来绵延三千年的中国原生宗教，即以 来:人与自然的和谐而神秘的关系得到维持，源于商周时 天帝信仰为核心，包括‘上帝’观念, ‘天命’体验, 祭 期的敬天和法祖融入了儒家思想，透过礼制与仪式的方 祀活动和相应制度，以儒生为社会中坚，以儒学中相关 式渗透到政治体系与民间教化中，发展成为中国宗教的 内容为理论表现的那么一种宗教体系。”22何氏所谓的“ 重要基础，在中国人社会生活中始终占有极为重要的位 中国原生宗教”恰恰就是中华信仰的神学基础和基本核 置，直到今天。 心。正是因为这个神学基础的存在，所以儒家在获得一 不可否认，在整个社会面临着礼崩乐坏, 战乱不断之 尊地位后能够借助敬天法祖的信仰，一方面成为政治权 际，孔子及其时代的思想家在阐述其治国匡世的思想过 力的帝王师，同时也是老百姓日常生活实践的教化者。 程中做了很多的努力，以理性化地清理带有原始色彩的 通过信仰层面 (也可以说“神学层面”) 的共识，浸润在 神秘主义的巫觋文化传统。因此，我们能够找到大量的 民间信仰环境中的普通大众同时接受了天命观念和皇权 证据，反应孔子本人是如何地在继承周礼的同时，淡漠 至高无上的神圣性。正因为有这种共识，官方政治宗教 各种鬼神之事，将完善社会伦理和个人道德修养作为其 仪式才拥有了广泛的社会文化基础，对“天”的崇拜, 对 使命，从而使学术与思想的儒家从一开始就具有了人文 皇权合法性的认同才有可能深入于普通民众的日常生活 主义, 世俗主义的性质。杜维明认为，在今天“儒家具有 和信仰实践。23 包容性的人文主义看来比启蒙时代以人类为中心的世俗 恰恰是因为儒学本身的宗教性面向有着丰富的仪式 人文主义更加切合当前的时代精神”。19然而，我们或许 性内容，同时在历史发展的脉络中其伦理性追求与佛教, 需要正视二千多年前孔子生活的时代，人类与自然关系 道教以及民间宗教等的崇拜, 祭祀以及鬼神系统的相互渗 之密切是今天的人们难以想象的，民众的生产与生活, 王 透，形成了“百姓日用而不知”的格局，更是中华文化 朝的政治活动 (王朝更迭, 出兵打仗, 礼制祭祀) 都离不开 血脉得以传承的重要基础。 超自然的力量。于是，“儒”作为一个整体实际上包含 着多方面的内容，配合其伦理价值的往往离不开各种各 样的政治仪式, 与祭祀仪式；故而从深层上讲，宗教性则 宗教性的“儒”与新兴宗教运动 是其中的一个重要面向。 “儒”的现代命运如何？在过去的三十多年间，中国经 孔子、孟子连同那些儒家后继者们，吸收了很多在 历了广泛的宗教复兴，在各种各样宗教复兴的社会运动 早期中国文化中有价值的精神内容，并且予以发展、重 中，“儒”的复兴也日益受到关注。由于历史变迁，需 新诠释。在后来历朝历代中，儒学的思想观念和精神价 要对“儒”的命运从的不同层面来观察。 值的复合体被融合进入了具有多元宗教特性的文化信仰 作为正统的儒学不复存在 一百年多年前，科举制度 体系中。20“如果我们将儒家人文主义传统作为与商代巫 废除，继而辛亥革命推翻了清帝国，儒学失去政治制度 文化既相联系又相分离的辩证过程，那么这种发生于原 的支撑而趋于式微；在这个重大的社会转折中，宗法制 始政治文化的特殊形态的人文主义就既是伦理的，又是 和宗族制都受到了现代化浪潮和革命洪流的冲击，天命 宗教的。” 21杨庆堃在论述中国社会的宗教时，认为 作为权力合法性的基础被科学, 民主等现代性话语所取 儒家思想从创始便留下足够的余地，使之能够与超自然 代。特别是二十世纪中叶以来，儒学的传统更多地被当 的观念发展出一种运作关系。他论证了家庭整合中的宗 成历史负累而遭受灭顶之灾，这样的情况在文化革命期 教、君权神授的天命运作、神道设教的政治伦理以及文 间达到了登峰造极的程度；甚至在改革开放初期的文化 人中普遍存在的神秘主义信仰与仪式等，无疑从历史社 反思中，还有不少所谓精英将儒家传统作为中国落后的 会学的角度充分肯定了“儒”的宗教性。在此基础上， 根源来批判。在中国社会的政治体系和主流话语中，儒 杨庆堃没有纠缠于纯学理的论证，而是用大量丰富的历 学从根本上失去其往日的正统核心地位，其影响力充其 史资料支撑其论点。 量只是多元价值中的一元。 综上所述，我们认为表现“儒”的宗教性的内容主 一直在为儒学价值奔走呼号的杜维明也承认，“决 要源于孔子之前的敬天法祖的传统，而后代的儒生们又 定儒学与中国现代化转向之相关性的游戏规则已经明显 通过政治制度和文化制度的发展，将敬天法祖的传统进 改变了，就儒学本身呈明儒家观念的努力只是在学术象 一步强化于日常生活之中。在《中国文化的根与花》一 牙塔之内的少数学者中保持着，在象牙塔之外则基本上 被忽略了。现代化和发展经济的目标压倒了人文主义和 18 张光直，《美术, 神话与祭祀》，辽宁教育出版社，2002年版， 第1页，第29页。 19 杜维明，“个人, 社群与道:古代群体批判的自我意识的出 22 何光沪，“中国文化的根与花——谈儒学的‘返本’与‘开 现 ” 。 http://isbrt.ruc.edu.cn/pol04/Article/chinese/c_gene- 新’”，“宗教观念的本质与上帝观”，任继愈主编《儒教问题争 ral/200412/1433.html 论集》，北京:宗教文化出版社2000。 20 Lizhu Fan, James Whitehead and Evelyn Whitehead, Sociology of 23 参见杨庆堃，《中国社会中的宗教——宗教的现代社会功能与 Religion: Religion and China, Beijing: Current Press 2010, p. 202. 其历史因素之研究》，范丽珠主译。上海:上海人民出版社2007，第 21 同上 135页，第136页。 Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   41 民胞物与的更大关怀。”24 值。25康晓光对于儒教复兴的关注也是落在传统文化复兴 儒学不再是教育的核心内容 传统时代，儒家思想与 现象上，那些参与到各种传统文化运动中者，究竟有多少 道德价值对于中国人和社会的影响力，主要来自于儒学 是致力于儒学的复兴，是个不太容易弄清楚的事情。 与教育, 与官员选拔方式的结合，来自于弥漫在社会生活 不少学者提出，现代民间儒者必须放弃那种“出则必 方方面面的儒家文化价值。但是，今天的教育与教化方 为帝者师，处则必为天下万世师”的怪想，走出所谓政 式，还有多少与儒家经典与思想价值相关呢？可以说是 治儒学的迷思，放下身段，走向民间，呼应民间的诉求， 微乎其微。我们这代人最早了解孔孟，恐怕是与70年代 顺乎人心之需要，在乡间, 在村野, 在社区, 在校园，在一 的批林批孔运动有关。我们曾经访谈过一位民国初年出 切有人活动的地方，重建儒学的生活规范，儒学的价值信 生的老先生，只在新式学堂学习了六年，他能够背诵四 念。26文化儒教徒要成为一种文化身分和精神标志，今后 书五经中大部分内容；他不是书法家，但是一直用毛笔 必须面对的问题仍然是“己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人” 字写字，到了80岁高龄时还坚持用毛笔写信。他崇尚科 的问题，与其孜孜于“上行路线”以成就“度天子”之黄 学，轻视各种民俗与迷信，但是他所接受的教育已经将 粱一梦，倒不如一贯的走“群众路线”，即一方面“到民 儒家思想乃至传统文人之道，内化成他人格的一部分。 间去”，去感受生活化或常民化的儒教，以常民为师，将 当代的学生们学习的主要内容是建立在世俗化理念之上 社会和历史所积淀下来的价值观念和礼仪规范“内在化” 的各种科学知识和多元的人文传统，以及其他工具性的 为自己的日常生活；另一方面还是“到民间去”，努力让 技能 (包括各种外国语言, 电子计算机等) 。中国的学生要 简约的儒教重新成为日常的教化，成为每天习以为常的“ 花很多的时间和精力学习外语，还不算他们花在打游戏 天理人心”。 27事实上，现代社会的中国民间不是“儒 机, 上网聊天的时间。也就是说，今天儒家经典的内容已 学”纾尊降贵在当今时代求得存在的权宜之计，而某些学 经与当代教育关系不大，无需更多的证明。五六十年代 者所推动的精英式儒教运动似乎成效甚微。 出生的人，还受过“孔融让梨”这样故事的教化，而今 宗教性的“儒”与新兴宗教运动 对于现代社 天的孩子恐怕更熟悉“奥特曼”, “变形金刚”等东西。 会普遍存在的“失范”现象，贝尔提出一个冒险性的 儒家传统在民间的衰落 由于儒学在 答案﹕西方社会将重新向着某种宗教观念回归，现代 过去一百多年间命运跌宕多舛，其理想价值与工具性价 社会的种种文化困境和问题源自于现代主义存在的信仰 值都不复存在，这就使得普通人缺少了对儒学的了解和 危机，“现代主义的真正问题是信仰问题。” 28同样遭 追求的动机。我们曾经多次参观过浙江温州瑞安的叶适 遇道德困境的中国，道德重建所仰赖的文化资本，显然 博物馆。叶适是宋朝的永嘉学派的代表人物，令人欣慰 也需要儒学的回归。如上所述，在政治儒学、意识形 的是其后人在一千年后的今天还能为他建起一个私人博 态儒学失去正统地位之时，恰恰是宗教性的儒学获得了 物馆。现在博物馆的负责人是叶氏后人，他坦白地说， 在信仰与神秘主义实践方面的机会；源于中华文明奠 他一直不知道叶适是谁，只知道在叶家很多祖宗中有 基时期儒学的宗教性，通过其在日常生活世界的弥漫与 个“心水公”，到了近年有人找到他建博物馆才知道原 渗透、与佛教道教等密切融合，获得了相当普遍的影 来这个“心水公”曾经是宋朝的大儒叶适，在中国历史 响力，于是成为新兴宗教运动因应时代问题进行创新发 上声名显赫。叶适博物馆的不远处就是叶氏宗祠，祠堂 展的重要内容。 “儒家独特的精神取向（spiritual 中则有光顾的人较多，很是热闹；当然叶适博物馆的存 orientation）被主要的宗教传统所吸纳。正如儒家知 在也使得叶氏宗祠的祭祖活动增添了合理性。 识分子那样，世俗的也是神圣的；更为突出的是，不接 张德胜和金耀基十多年前对两岸三地的“儒商”的研 受世俗与神圣的分离。”29 究中，发现“他们人数稀少，不是因为与时代脱节，而是 他们所怀抱的价值，没有像传统时代那样得到制度上的支 25 林先生是吉隆坡一间中小型企业的东主，在访谈中，他提到早些 持。如上所言，自本世纪以来，就其影响力而言，儒家思 时候大女儿怀孕，身体感到不适，他的妻子就服侍她，叫她躺在床 想已失去了昔日的光辉。在今日，基本上是以文化传统的 上，不要动，多休息，煮东西给她吃。后来，他自己家中的菲律宾女 余绪绵延下来。”事实上，尽管作者认为受访儒商虽然人 佣也怀了孕，也感到身体不适，他的妻子同样服侍该女佣，叫她不要 数很少，但其重要性不应因此而受到忽视，并强调儒商不 动，多休息，还弄东西给她吃。他的大女儿看在眼里，不以为然，说 光是概念及历史现象，而是现实社会里面活生生的人。我 妈妈不该如此，但他的妻子说了一句话:“幼吾幼以及人之幼”。在 这里，林先生说的虽然是妻子的事，但他显然是赞同她的行动的。 们从其中访谈内容反映的情况来看，这些所谓的如上只能 26 颜炳罡，“民间儒学何以可能”，http://www.chinakongzi.org/ 勉强地具有儒家的“意识”或“取向”而已，其中所体现 rjwh/ddmj/yanbinggang/200706/t20070605_2207540.htm 的价值基本上是普世性的道德关怀，而并非明显的儒家价 27 陈进国，“中华教:当代儒教的三种实践形态”，http://iwr.cass. cn/rjyjs/lw/201101/t20110117_5940.html 28 Daniel Bell，赵一凡等译，《资本主义文化矛盾》﹐北京﹕三联 出版社, 1989年, 第40页。 29 Tu Weiming, “Confucian Spirituality in Contemporary China”, in 24 杜维明，“个人, 社群与道:古代群体批判的自我意识的出 Confucianism and Spiritual Traditions in Modern China and Beyond, 现 ” ， http://isbrt.ruc.edu.cn/pol04/Article/chinese/c_gene- edited by Fenggang Yang and Joseph Tamney, Leiden: Brill 2012, p. ral/200412/1433.html 79. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM 42  Fan Lizhu , Chen Na 近三十年来民间各种各样非制度性的宗教仪式活动 雍和上下而别尊卑，谈说因果而敬鬼神”的社会教化宣 恢复与发展，在很大程度上反映了宗教性的儒之普遍存 讲为主。35鸾堂崇祀的主神众多而复杂，后来逐渐发展出 在。沿袭原始儒教“慎终追远”传统的祖先崇拜，在现 以三恩主或五恩主36为主要崇祀对象的鸾堂，儒宗神教逐 代社会仍然以各种方式为民众所实践，最典型的就是祠 渐成为台湾本地鸾堂的代称。37尽管大量地继承了传统宗 堂重修, 家谱续修等宗族活动的活跃，以及恢复清明节这 教的神圣资源和伦理价值，作为新兴宗教的儒宗神教的 个祭祖的日子为公共节日。在各地民间宗教恢复的过程 神圣性格则非常强烈。 中，传统“政治-伦理”信仰30内容往往有助于某些寺庙, 原本在大陆和台湾都本饱受诟病的民间教派团体 社区仪式的文化合法性建立。例如，在邯郸羌村修建的 ---- 一贯道，自上世纪八十年代台湾实行解严以来，得 蔺相如庙就是以“和谐”文化为号召的。31这样的案例不 到了非常大的发展，并借助两岸频繁的互动往来，重返 一而足。范丽珠在深圳进行民间信仰田野研究时也发现, 大陆；伴随着全球化的进程，打起儒教旗号的一贯道从 多数人并不会特意地去区别佛教, 道教神灵与修行仪式, 台湾流传到东南亚后，已经传播到几十个国家。在摆脱 同时将儒家的教化也等同于佛教, 道教，相信所有的传统 令人起疑的神秘色彩的同时，一贯道强调对传统文化的 信仰都有助于人们的修行, 实现道德向上的精神境界。32 继承与发扬，特别是更以儒的传承为重任。对天道的理 在民间颇有影响力的净空法师，其对某些经典的解释， 解，借鉴了中国文化传统里丰富且多姿的宇宙意识，继 常常出佛道而入儒，三教合一。儒家的思想观念作为弥 承了中国人心灵旁通统贯的管理智慧。一贯道的核心思 漫的宗教性成为民众获得生命意义的社会资本，体现于 想就是扣紧在具有宗教性的宇宙意识上，尽管其中杂糅 各种各样的宗教复兴运动中。 多种宗教因素，却明确地以“儒教”而自居。 儒学的宗教性部分广泛地嵌入于民众生活之中，同 在中国主流的意识形态中，“儒”的面目比较模 时各种制度性宗教在现代社会中也出现了弥漫化, 边缘化 糊，但这并不影响儒的传统在现实生活的存在，并成为 的现象，这就给新兴宗教的出现和发展以机会。新兴宗 社会运动与宗教运动的重要资源。尽管官方往往打着文 教在中国社会的酝酿与发展大量地融合并借鉴着儒家的 化的旗帜来使用儒或孔子的符号，其实很难避免触及到 伦理道德, 仪式理念以及社会关怀等既有的社会资本。当 儒的宗教性部分。例如，官方主导并参与的祭孔活动， 然，所谓诸多的新兴宗教也可以说没有任何一种是全然 由中央电视台现场直播，并组织国内外数百家媒体同步 是新创的，必然是综合了许多传统宗教的内涵。本来， 报道；将以上坟祭祖为重要内容的清明节定为成为官方 三教一家就是民间固有的宗教形态，新兴宗教往往都是 的法定节日。而民间儒学 (教) 的活动，则更是多种多样 混合多元宗教信仰，在现代社会“整体儒释道三教以 ---- 例如，孔氏后人的祭孔, 宗祠的重建, 族谱重修；各地 外，又发生了层出不穷的，以‘三教合一’为主要诉求 出现的读经学堂，如逄飞及其一耽学堂, 蒋庆及其阳明精 的蓬勃发展的民间教派活动”。33在新兴宗教发展的过程 舍, 王财贵宣扬儿童读经的演讲；被赞为“儒学慧能”的 中，一个非常突出的特点是，在不排除佛道教相辅助的 民国时期王凤仪对人生领悟箴言的重新流行等等。凡此 前提下，“儒”的宗教性有日益凸显的趋势，这在台湾 种种，其中宗教性的表现成为不可分割的一部分。而同 有很多的例子。台湾流行的夏教，“从林兆恩的‘疏天 样值得我们关注是在宗教实践与创新过程中，儒教获得 文稿’与夏教徒的‘忏悔启章’可以看出儒家思想的宗 了系统性和宗教组织化发展的可能 --通过传统道德意识 教性发展，仰赖外传的神明意志来扶持儒家道德生命的 的强调和仪式的学习，以及神秘信仰回应急剧社会变迁 实践与完成，并以善恶果报的宗教权威作消极性的行为 中民众遇到的问题与困境 (社会的, 心理的) ；在周边基督 限制，再以超凡入圣的解脱意念积极地拓展内在的德性 教团体压力下，调整民间宗教惯常松散的形式 -- 结合 涵养。”34 对个人疾苦的关注, 集体性活动参与而进入社会的需求领 在台湾新兴的宗教现象使得传统宗教观念与象征符 域，从而促成组织本身的发展与影响力的增加；同时， 号在社会急速发展之际而获得了新的表达机会。比如， 在顺应主流意识形态话语的情况下，得到更广泛的发展 儒宗神教的流行在这个过程中表现得特别引人注目，其 空间。在这一方面，福建北部出现的“儒教道坛”在过 宗教态度大致以“讲道德而明礼让，解经书而终人伦， 去十几年间迅速的发展就是一个好的例子。38 显而易见，无论是传统的延续还是因应现实需要的 创新，“儒”的宗教性支撑了新兴宗教的文化与伦理诉 30 杨庆堃，《中国社会中的宗教——宗教的现代社会功能与其历 求，并借助神圣性和灵验性在民众中产生共鸣。在历史 史因素之研究》，范丽珠主译。上海:上海人民出版社2007，第143 页。 31 范丽珠, 陈纳，“中国民间信仰及其现代价值的研究”，《宗教 35 郑志明，《台湾民间宗教结社》，嘉义:南华管理学院1998年， 蓝皮书•中国宗教报告2012年》，北京:社会科学出版社2012年。 第318。 32 参见范丽珠，《当代中国人宗教信仰的变迁:深圳民间宗教信徒 36 三恩主是关圣帝君, 孚佑帝君 (吕洞宾) 和司命真君；五恩主则外 的田野研究》，台北:韦伯文化2005年。 加王天君和岳武穆王。 33 丁仁杰，《社会分化与宗教制度变迁 --- 当代台湾新兴宗教现 37 王志宇，1997，《台湾的恩主公信仰 ---- 儒宗神教与飞鸾劝 象的社会学考察》，台北:联经2004年，第362页。 化》，台北:文津出版社，第51页。 34 郑志明，《台湾民间宗教结社》，嘉义:南华管理学院1998年， 38 范丽珠, 陈纳，“一个新宗教的诞生 ---- 福建北部儒教道坛的 第245。 田野研究”，未刊稿。 Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM   The Religiousness of “Confucianism”, and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today   43 上，“儒学树立起无神的传统作为其教化的前提，其基 本的准则主要是由实用主义的考虑发展而来。即使现 代新儒学融入了佛教思想，也未动摇儒学基本的现世取 向。儒家学说将注意力集中于生与死的终极意义，但只 是在人的道德责任方面，而不关心任何超自然因素。作 为思想体系，儒学的宗教特性存在于对天和命运观念等 含糊不清的态度中，通过传授知识或用道德的说教来解 答人类面临的难以记数的问题。作为一种实用的学说， 儒学得到了祭祀仪式和众多与儒学传统的功能相关的超 自然观念和仪式的支持。” 39这就使得在历史上不断努 力摆脱原始宗教影响、致力于理性化的儒学，在当今社 会借助于新兴宗教、通过触及神圣领域的形式，来满足 在意义失落时代人们的精神需求。 伯格(Peter Berger) 在对当今世界宗教发展状况的观 察中发现，在不断世俗化的同时也出现了广泛的宗教复 兴现象，于是用“去世俗化”(de-secularization) 来描绘 当下的情形。伯格预示了“我们这个世界下个世纪也不 会比现在更缺少宗教性。”40 或者我们也可以说，由于 人类自身从未放弃对生命意义与终极问题的追求，对于 世俗化浪潮中生活的现代人来说，神秘主义也是其中的 一部分。显然，活跃于当代文化中的宗教传统仍所保留 着源于早期人类宗教性表达的很多因素，“没有失去任 何东西，……部落时期和古代宗教的面向仍活在我们中 间。”41 因此，我们强调儒学宗教性的存在及其现代意义， 解释儒学宗教性对于新兴宗教创新与发展的现实性，在 一定程度上是帮助我们认识当代儒学的命运 ---- 弥漫 于民众生活世界、透过新兴宗教运动，儒学在今日仍然 是鲜活的。同时，我们也看到了无论是有着新面貌的一 贯道还是在福建北部出现的儒教道坛，其组织性结构都 超出了传统民间宗教的松散状态，具有了新型社会组织 的样貌；在伦理效应与宗教真确性相互作用过程中，不 断地生发出对社会的影响力。 39 杨庆堃著，范丽珠主译《中国社会中的宗教——宗教的现代社 会功能与其历史因素之研究》，上海：上海人民出版社2007年，第 40页。 40 Berger, Peter, The Desecularization of the world: Resurgent Religi- on and World Politics, edited by Peter Berger. MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing 1999. 41 Bellah, Robert “Epilogue”, Meaning and Modernity, edited by, Richard P Madsen, William M Sullivan, Ann Swidler and Steven M. Tipton, CA: University of California Press 2002, p. 273. Unauthenticated Download Date | 12/2/15 3:31 AM