commentary
Nanomaterials in art
conservation
Piero Baglioni, Emiliano Carretti and David Chelazzi
Tackling the degradation of cultural heritage requires a global efort. We call on all material scientists to
develop new nanomaterials and methods for the preservation of artwork.
T
he preservation and transfer of cultural
identities and heritage to future
generations is everyone’s responsibility.
A review on the social and economic
value of cultural heritage published in
2014 by the European Expert Network on
Culture concluded that cultural heritage
is a strategic resource for a sustainable
Europe: if properly managed, it can enhance
social inclusion and cohesion, encourage
intercultural dialogue, improve the quality
of the immediate living environment, and
stimulate tourism1. he best way to realize
these beneits is to increase access to cultural
heritage through digital means and public
engagement 1. However, access is possible
only if the original artefacts are properly
conserved, stored and displayed. herefore,
developing new conservation techniques
that are readily available, inexpensive and
easy to apply is vital to maintaining access.
Conservation should tackle a multitude
of degradation processes arising from
environmental factors, physical erosion and
microorganisms, as well as handling and
wrecking. Although the preservation of
cultural heritage involves a diferent code
of ethics2, it can be compared to medicine,
where artefacts are analogous to patients
and conservators are similar to doctors.
Diagnosis, treatment and prevention are
relevant to the conservation of artefacts,
and science has contributed to such
activities. Although much efort has been
dedicated to preventive conservation and
to the development of advanced diagnostic
techniques, only a relatively small part
of conservation science has focused on
‘therapy’ — that is, the production of
innovative materials that can be applied to
works of art to repair and restore them.
Nanoscience is a unique resource to
conservation because, unlike conventional
materials such as polymers that are
commonly used in conservation, engineered
nanomaterials do not alter the original
physical and chemical properties of
artefacts and have low environmental
impact 3. Here, we highlight the role of hard
(inorganic nanocrystals) and sot (built
from molecular blocks) nanomaterials in
revolutionizing the technical approaches to
heritage conservation.
Soft nanomaterials
he irst application of nanoscience to
the conservation of artefacts dates back
to the end of the 1980s in Florence, Italy,
with the cleaning of wall paintings in the
Brancacci Chapel4. Cleaning the surface of
works of art is an irreversible and delicate
intervention involving the removal of
undesired materials layer by layer. In some
cases, for instance on hard materials such
as marble, stone and metal surfaces, this
can be achieved using laser or plasma
techniques5. However, these methods can
induce local heating and mechanical shocks,
particularly with painted surfaces. Chemical
or wet methodologies become the preferred
options because they are more practical and
considered to be ‘safer’.
a
For the restoration of the
Brancacci Chapel paintings, an oil-in-water
microemulsion of dodecane nanodroplets
stabilized in water by a surfactant was
used to remove wax spots from the surface
of the murals. As the amount of organic
phase used in oil-in-water microemulsions
is typically below 10% (including solvents
and surfactants), their toxicity and
environmental impact are signiicantly
less than that of organic solvents (such
as aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons)
traditionally used for cleaning. Even with
a reduced solvent content, microemulsions
allow efective cleaning because the nanosize
droplets have a huge interfacial area (that
is, the active surface in soil removal) that
is about 500,000 times higher than that of
the same amount of bulk solvent. he soil
detaches from the painting’s surface and
is trapped inside the droplets. Moreover,
unlike bulk solvents, the continuous
aqueous phase of the microemulsion acts
as a barrier that limits the spreading of
b
Figure 1 | Removal of aged acrylic coatings from the wall paintings of the San Salvador church sacristy in
Venice, Italy. a,b, Photographs taken before the removal (a) and after the application of a high-viscosity
polymeric dispersion loaded with an oil-in-water microemulsion (b). Panel a reproduced with permission
from ref. 26, American Chemical Society. Panel b taken by Emiliano Carretti, printed with kind permission
from the Italian Heritage Department.
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287
commentary
a
b
c
Figure 2 | Removal of aged varnish from an eighteenth-century canvas painting. a, Photographs of the
painting and of the poly(2–hydroxyethyl methacrylate)/poly(vinylpyrrolidone) hydrogel application. From
left to right: the painting before cleaning (visible light); the painting before cleaning (ultraviolet light);
the application of the hydrogel (visible light); the painting after cleaning (visible light); and the painting
after cleaning (ultraviolet light). b, Ultraviolet photographs of the painting showing the feasibility of
using chemical gels over a large area. Ultraviolet light luorescence highlights the eicacy of the cleaning
process (left image, not cleaned; right image, cleaned). c, Visible light photographs of the painting
showing the feasibility of using chemical gels over a large area (left image, not cleaned; right image,
cleaned). Photographs courtesy of Nicole Bonelli, Michele Baglioni and Joana Domingues, CSGI. The
painting was provided by Aurelia Chevalier, Atelier Chevalier, France.
the trapped wax into the pores of the wall
painting. As a result more than 99% of the
undesired materials are removed with a
single application.
Since this pioneering application,
several systems have been developed to
address complex cleaning tasks, including
those arising from previous detrimental
restoration interventions. Since the 1960s,
murals have been widely treated with
hydrophobic polymer coatings because
these materials, which are good adhesives,
easy to use and ofer a nice saturation of
colours, were considered a panacea for
288
many degradation issues6,7. However,
these coatings strongly alter the surface
permeability of the artefacts, resulting in
mechanical stress that eventually produces
laking and detachment of the pictorial layer.
Moreover, depending on the environmental
conditions, these coatings can undergo
degradation ater 20–30 years, and exhibit
yellowing and brittleness. he removal
of these polymers represents one of the
most complex and ubiquitous topics in the
conservation of cultural heritage.
A water-based amphiphilic formulation
containing water, ethyl acetate, propylene
carbonate, a surfactant and a cosurfactant
was successfully used for the removal of
aged acrylic–vinyl copolymers that were
applied to Maya and Nahua murals in the
archaeological sites of Mayapan and Cholula
in Mexico3. As the organic solvents (ethyl
acetate and propylene carbonate) are present
both in the continuous phase (water) and in
the dispersed phase (nanocontainers of selfassembled amphiphiles), the system (named
EAPC) is neither a classical microemulsion,
such as that used in the Brancacci Chapel,
nor a simple micellar solution. hese
features make EAPC highly efective: the
nanocontainers allow the right amounts of
organic solvent to be dispersed in water and
made available for interaction with the aged
acrylic–vinyl copolymer coating the murals.
his interaction leads to swelling, chain
disentanglement and eventual detachment
of the copolymer.
EAPC has also been used to remove
aged coatings (including silicone resins)
from paintings in the Annunciation church
in Nazareth, Israel, where traditional
solvents (for example, a mixture of
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons) had
proved inefective8. A real improvement in
nanostructured cleaning luids is the use of
surfactants that self-degrade to inert volatile
compounds, making application even to
fragile or sensitive painted surfaces possible,
where rinsing with water or solvents to
remove residues of surfactants might
be detrimental9.
Furthermore, micelles and
microemulsions can be conined into
highly viscous gel-like matrices such as
hydrophobically modiied hydroxyethyl
cellulose (hMHEC) or polyvinyl alcohol
crosslinked with sodium tetraborate
(PVA–borate polymeric dispersions)10,11.
his combination allows spatial and kinetic
control of the cleaning process. PVA–borate
dispersions are highly elastic and they can
be removed using tweezers. A hMHEC
dispersion loaded with an oil-in-water
microemulsion has been used to remove a
thick layer of aged acrylic coatings from the
surface of wall paintings in the San Salvador
church in Venice (Fig. 1).
Another category of systems efective
for the safe cleaning of painted surfaces
is chemical gels whose gelling state is the
result of covalent bond formation. Targeted
and sustained drug delivery systems
have inspired the development of new
approaches for the controlled delivery of
cleaning agents12. In particular, chemical
gels made by semi-interpenetrated networks
of poly(2–hydroxyethyl methacrylate) and
poly(vinylpyrrolidone) can be shaped into
thin transparent foils where oil-in-water
microemulsions (and also polar solvents)
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commentary
can be easily loaded for the ‘safe’ removal of
the soiling. he network of covalent bonds
provides the gels with optimal mechanical
properties allowing the removal of the foils
ater cleaning without leaving gel residues
on the artefacts3. Moreover, the nano- and
microporosity of the covalent network,
and the hydrophilicity of the gels, can be
tuned to be highly retentive, allowing a
ine and controlled release of water-based
cleaning luids on water-sensitive objects
(such as easel paintings, parchment and
paper manuscripts, or dyed textiles), while
preserving the high cleaning eiciency of
microemulsions (Fig. 2).
a
b
1 cm
c
Hard nanomaterials
When applied to the preservation of cultural
heritage, nanotechnology also encompasses
the use of dispersions of hard nanocrystals,
such as inorganic hydroxides. At the end
of the twentieth century, nanostructured
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) emerged
as a highly beneicial restoration material
because it can be used to strengthen
weakened wall paintings and limestones13,
and to neutralize acidity that degrades
cellulose in wood and paper artefacts14,15.
Although highly insoluble compounds
can easily be obtained on the nanoscale,
the irst attempt to synthesize moderately
soluble nanoparticles (for example,
Ca(OH)2, with solubility of around 10−5 M)
took place in 199613. Initially, Ca(OH)2
nanoplatelets (approximately 250 nm wide
and 10 nm thick) were obtained through
the co-precipitation of calcium chloride
and sodium hydroxide solutions in water.
Subsequently, several other synthetic
methods have been investigated to improve
the physicochemical properties of the
particles, for instance to obtain smaller
platelets (approximately 80 nm) that exhibit
enhanced penetration through porous
artefacts and higher reactivity. Once inside
the pores, Ca(OH)2 particles react with
atmospheric CO2 (through the carbonation
process) and transform into a new calcium
carbonate network that merges with the
carbonatic matrix constituting the painting
to reproduce the mechanical properties of
the original artefacts. Highly crystalline
nanoparticles produce crystalline carbonate
networks that are particularly resistant to
mechanical stress and weather. Besides, the
chemical reactivity of the nanomaterials and
their ability to consolidate art works also
depends on the environmental conditions
under which carbonation takes place16,17. A
relevant case study on this methodology is
the consolidation of the Maya wall paintings
in Calakmul, Mexico3 (Fig. 3).
Ca(OH)2 nanoparticles can also be
used to recover the mechanical properties
20 nm
d
1 cm
Figure 3 | Maya wall paintings in the United Nations Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Organization
world heritage site of Calakmul, Mexico. a, Photograph of the wall paintings after restoration with
Ca(OH)2 nanoparticle dispersions. b, Grazing visible light image showing the detaching paint lakes
before the application of nanoparticles. c, Scanning electron microscopy micrograph of the Ca(OH)2
nanoparticles (hexagonal platelets) that have been applied to the degraded painted surface. d, Grazing
visible light image showing re-attached and re-adhered paint lakes after the application of nanoparticles.
Panels a,b,d reproduced with permission from ref. 27, The Royal Society of Chemistry.
of archaeological and palaeontological
bones, whose decay is based on a
mechanism similar to osteoporosis.
Ca(OH)2 nanoparticles penetrate the pores
of the bones and react with atmospheric
CO2 in the presence of trace amounts of
magnesium ions and collagen residues.
Magnesium ions and collagen favour
the formation of aragonite, a crystalline
form of calcium carbonate, with excellent
mechanical properties18.
To address conservation issues, it is
necessary to obtain stable and well-dispersed
Ca(OH)2 nanoparticles in non-aqueous
solvent, because water can cause hydrophilic
layers on the artwork to swell and/or dyes
to leach out. his requirement prompted
the application of nanoparticles that are
stably dispersed in short-chain alcohols13.
he use of these solvents on water-sensitive
components (for example, most ancient
inks) is less risky and advantageous because
they prevent the agglomeration of particles
into bigger clusters without the need for
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© 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
additives or stabilizers; this allows particles
to penetrate better and more homogeneously
through the artefact. In the past decade,
nanoparticle dispersions in alcohols have
been widely assessed by conservators and
conservation scientists as feasible tools
to efectively improve the mechanical
resistance of weakened murals, and to
safely counteract the acidity of diferent
artefacts including historical inked paper
documents, parchment, the canvas support
of paintings and waterlogged wood coming
from shipwrecks3.
he consolidation of silicate-based
stones has also beneitted from the use of
nanomaterials. he main inconvenience
of using well-established commercial
consolidation products (that is, ethyl
orthosilicate solutions) is that, on drying,
they tend to crack inside the pores of
the stone inducing mechanical stresses
on the silicate matrix 19. By adding silica
nanoparticles, lexible silanes or nanometresized polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane
289
commentary
to ethyl orthosilicate solutions, crack
formation during the drying phase
is reduced20,21.
Nanosols of silica have recently been
used in the consolidation of wood artefacts
and prevention of dimensional instability
owing to swelling and shrinkage induced
by changes in temperature and relative
humidity 22,23. Nanosols functionalized with
organic groups (speciically alkoxysilanes)
can stably bind to wood through the
formation of covalent bonds with hydroxyl
groups of wood cellulose. he equilibration
moisture of wood decreases following
treatment with sols, leading to dimensional
stability. Furthermore, alkyl-modiied
silica sols increase the abrasion resistance
of wood.
Although nanomaterials ofer new
opportunities for the conservation of
cultural heritage, the environmental and
health concerns surrounding their use
must be critically addressed. his is the
case, for instance, for titanium dioxide
(TiO2) nanoparticles, which can be used
as coatings for stone surfaces and can also
be embedded into a high-performance
concrete to achieve a surface active against
pollution and microbial contamination.
he irst example of such an architectonic
building designed with a self-cleaning
white surface is Meier’s church, Dives in
Misericordia, in Rome. Recently, the need
to assess the durability and sustainability
of TiO2 nanoparticles through a life cycle
assessment methodology was highlighted —
that is, a complete and exhaustive
evaluation that considers both performance
and environmental impact during all stages
of the material’s life (from production to
post-application phases)24. At present,
this practice has not yet been routinely
290
adopted for nanomaterials used in cultural
heritage conservation.
In some cases, ageing in the artwork can
cause the release of nanoparticles into the
environment. One way to inhibit this release
is by binding the nanoparticles stably to the
treated artwork. For example, chemically
modiied silver nanoparticles bound to
a bifunctional molecule (such as one
consisting of silanes and alkyl orthosilicates
bearing a short hydrocarbon chain) have
been stably grated onto stone surfaces25. In
addition to providing stability, preliminary
experiments have shown that grating silver
nanoparticles can prevent bacterial and
fungal contamination25.
Call to material scientists
We expect several challenges in the next
few decades. Although the nanomaterials
developed so far are able to conserve the
older legacies, new applications must be
explored to safely preserve modern and
contemporary art for future generations.
As contemporary artefacts (for example,
plastic sculptures, polymateric artworks,
inked drawings) degrade very rapidly, it
is expected that many of these important
works of art may be severely damaged
within the next 50 years. Such an urgent and
concerning threat stands as a call to material
scientists to participate in cultural heritage
conservation and to develop innovative
materials for the preservation of our
cultural identity.
❐
Piero Baglioni, Emiliano Carretti and David
Chelazzi are in the Department of Chemistry and
Center for Colloids and Surface Science, University
of Florence, via della Lastruccia, 3 – Sesto
Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy.
e-mail:
[email protected]
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Acknowledgements
CSGI and the European Union (NANOFORART project
FP7-ENV-NMP-2011/282816; www.nanoforart.eu) are
gratefully acknowledged for inancial support. L. Dei,
D. Berti, E. Fratini and R. GIorgi are gratefully acknowledged
for their collaboration and discussions.
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