In linguistics, the description of a language is split into two parts, the grammar consisting of rules describing correct sentence formation and the lexicon listing words and phrases that can be used in the sentences. The lexicon (or wordstock) of a language is its vocabulary. Statistically, most lexemes contain a single morpheme. Lexemes composed of multiple morpheme also known as compound words such as idiomatic expressions and colocations are also considered part of the lexicon. In practical applications, such as language learning the lexicon is represented by a dictionary, which lists words alphabetically and provides definition.
More formally, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. Coined in English 1603, the word "lexicon" derives from the Greek λεξικόν (lexicon), neuter of λεξικός (lexikos), "of or for words",[1] from λέξις (lexis), "speech", "word",[2] and that from λέγω (lego), "to say", "to speak".[3]
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Size and organization [link]
Items in the lexicon are called lexemes or word forms. Lexemes are not atomic elements but contain both phonological and morphological components. When describing the lexicon a reductionist approach is used, trying to remain general while using a minimal description. To describe the size of a lexicon, lexemes are grouped into lemmas. A lemma is a group of lexemes generated by inflectional morphology. Lemmas are represented in dictionaries by headwords which list the citation forms and any irregular forms, since these must be learned to use the words correctly. Lexemes derived from a word by derivation morphology are considered new lemmas. The lexicon is also organized according to open and closed categories. Closed categories, such as determiners or pronouns, rarely get new lexemes and their function is primarily syntactic. Open categories such as nouns and verbs have highly active generation mechanisms and their lexemes are more semantic in nature.
Lexicalization and other Mechanisms in the Lexicon [link]
A central role of the Lexicon is the documenting of established lexical norms and conventions. Lexicalization is the process where new words, having gained into widespread usage, enter in the lexicon. Since lexicalization[4] may modify lexeme phonologically and morphologically it is possible, that a single etymological source may be borrowed in two or more forms into a single lexicon. These pairs are called doublet are often close semantically. Two examples are aptitude versus attitude, and employ versus imply.[5]
The mechanisms (not mutually exclusive) are[6] -
- Innovation[7] - the planned creation of new roots (often on a large-scale), e.g. slang, branding, .
- Borrowing - of foreign words.
- Compounding also called composition is the combination of lexemes into a single word.
- Abbreviation of compounds.
- Acronyms reduction of compound to their initial letters, e.g.NASA, laser.
- Inflection morphology change with a category - such as number or tense.
- Derivation morphological change resulting in a change of category.
- Agglutination a compounding of morphemes into a single word.
- In complex words constituents may be dropped.
Besides word-formation there are also mechanism of change in an exiting lexeme.
- Lexical Replacement - replacement, either complete or in a word sense.
- Sound Change localised to specific words, phonotactics combination or systemic taking the form of a consonant or a vowel shift.
- Blocking - existing lexical conventions block creation of new words.
- Obsolescence of vocabulary - slang typically have short lifespans.
New Words [link]
Neologism are new lexeme candidates which if they gain wide usage overtime become part of a language's lexicon. Neologism are often introduced by children in a type of kid slip[8] which is a . Neologism are also introduced by adults in marketing activities such as advertising and branding, and in slang.
Loan Words [link]
Most innovations to a lexicon are either loan words introduced by bilingual speakers during language contact or compound words created from existing morphemes. Once a neologism or a compound is introduced in one languages if successful it will often diffuse across geographical boundaries.
The Role of Morphology [link]
Another mechanism involves generative devices which combine morphemes according to a language's rules. For example, the suffix "-able" can be added to transitive verbs only, so that we get "read-able" but not "cry-able".
Compounding [link]
A compound word is a lexeme composed of several pre-existing morphemes. Because a compound word is composed of established lexeme they are usually easier to acquire than loan words or neologisms. Their meaning is usually just a sum of their constituent parts.
- armed and dangerous (sum of it words)
- armed to the teeth (metaphorical)
Compound that are not the semantical sum of their of its constituents can be interpreted through analogy, common sense and context[4] Compound words have simple morphological structures, one or no elements requiring inflection for agreement. On the other hand they are subject to the rules of syntax and can contain gaps to hold other lexems on which they operate.
- another nail in someone/something → another nail in the company's coffin
- bring something to someone's attention → bring a problem to your Attention
Once new compounds are successfully established in one language they will often diffuse across geographical boundaries. Examples
- house-wife
- város-háza (Hungarian) "city hall".
- rot-licht (German) "red light".
Compounding tends to produces longer lexemes which may result in lexeme of unwieldy proportion. To compensate for this there are also mechanism which reduce the length of a words
Diachronic Mechanisms [link]
Comparative historical linguistics studies the evolutions languages and takes a diachronic view of the lexicon. The evolution of lexicons in different languages occurs through parallel mechanisms. Over time historical forces work to [9] shape the lexicon, making it simpler to acquire and often creating an illusion of great regularity in language.
- Phonological Assimilation - modification of loan words to better fit a new language's sound structure. If a loan word is too foreign sounding inflection or derivation rules may not be able to transform it.
- Analogy - new words undergo inflection and derivation analogous to that of words with a similar sound structure.
- Emphasis - words are modified for effect of emphasis.
- Metaphor - a form of semantic extension.
Second Language Lexicon [link]
The term lexicon is generally used in the context of single language. Therefore, multi-lingual speakers are generally thought to have multiple lexicons. Speakers of language variants (Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese, for example) may be considered to possess a single lexicon. Thus a cash dispenser (British English) as well as and automatic teller machine or ATM in (American English) while belonging to speakers of different dialect would be understood by both American and British dialect speakers.
When linguists study the lexicon, they consider such things as what constitutes a word; the word-concept relationship; lexical access and lexical access failure; how a word's phonology, syntax, and meaning intersect; the morphology-word relationship; vocabulary structure within a given language; language use (that is, pragmatics); language acquisition; the history and evolution of words (i.e. etymology); and the relationships between words, often studied within philosophy of language.
In psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and computational linguistics, researchers have proposed various models of how the lexicon is organized and how words are retrieved.
See also [link]
References [link]
- ^ λεξικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
- ^ λέξις, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
- ^ λέγω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
- ^ a b Geert, Booij (2005). The grammar of words : an introduction to linguistic morphology. Oxford textbooks in linguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-19-928042-3|0-19-928042-3]].
- ^ Skeat, Walter (17-04-2010). A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Forgotten Books. p. 648. ISBN 978-1-4400-5722-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=wRGhnkZq3HQC.
- ^ Ornan, Uzzi (2003) (in Hebrew). The Final Word — Mechanism For Hebrew Word Generation. Haifa: Haifa University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/965-311-054-4|965-311-054-4]].
- ^ Metcalf, Allan (2002). Predicting New Words — The Secrets of Their Success. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13006-3.
- ^ Jaeger, Jeri J. (2005). Kid's slips: what young children's slips of the tongue reveal about language development. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-8058-3579-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=g1YGd1FkRgAC. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ^ Deutscher, Guy (May 19, 2005). The Unfolding of Language: An Evolutionary Tour of Mankind's Greatest Invention. Metropolitan Books.
Further reading [link]
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Look up lexicon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Aitchison, Jean. Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
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https://wn.com/Lexicon
Disjunctive sequence
A disjunctive sequence is an infinite sequence (over a finite alphabet of characters) in which every finite string appears as a substring. For instance, the binary Champernowne sequence
formed by concatenating all binary strings in shortlex order, clearly contains all the binary strings and so is disjunctive. (The spaces above are not significant and are present solely to make clear the boundaries between strings). The complexity function of a disjunctive sequence S over an alphabet of size k is pS(n) = kn.
Any normal sequence (a sequence in which each string of equal length appears with equal frequency) is disjunctive, but the converse is not true. For example, letting 0n denote the string of length n consisting of all 0s, consider the sequence
obtained by splicing exponentially long strings of 0s into the shortlex ordering of all binary strings. Most of this sequence consists of long runs of 0s, and so it is not normal, but it is still disjunctive.
A disjunctive sequence is recurrent but never uniformly recurrent/almost periodic.
Lexicon (program)
Lexicon was a text editor / word processor MS-DOS program that was extremely popular in the Soviet Union and Russia at the end of 1980s and in 1990s. Some estimate that Lexicon was illegally installed on 95% of all Russian PCs. The last version for MS-DOS was 3.0. Later Windows versions were developed, but they were not popular.
Lexicon was originally developed at the Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR by Ye. N. Veselov.
Lexicon could produce and edit plain text files; at the same time, it could enrich them with various formatting codes (which all started with the character 255 (0xFF)). Lexicon also included a spell checker.
Lexicon supported operations with linear and rectangular blocks; it also had convenient means for drawing tables with box drawing characters.
Lexicon could work with both osnovnaya (primary) and alternativnaya (alternative) character sets. It also included its own screen and printer fonts and keyboard drivers for use with non-russified computers.
Official
An official is someone who holds an office (function or mandate, regardless whether it carries an actual working space with it) in an organization or government and participates in the exercise of authority (either his own or that of his superior and/or employer, public or legally private).
A government official or functionary is an official who is involved in public administration or government, through either election, appointment, selection, or employment. A bureaucrat or civil servant is a member of the bureaucracy. An elected official is a person who is an official by virtue of an election. Officials may also be appointed ex officio (by virtue of another office, often in a specified capacity, such as presiding, advisory, secretary). Some official positions may be inherited. A person who currently holds an office is referred to as an incumbent.
The word official as a noun has been recorded since the Middle English period, first seen in 1314. It comes from the Old French official (12th century), from the Latin officialis ("attendant to a magistrate, public official"), the noun use of the original adjective officialis ("of or belonging to duty, service, or office") from officium ("office"). The meaning "person in charge of some public work or duty" was first recorded in 1555. The adjective is first attested in English in 1533, via the Old French oficial.
Official (Canadian football)
An official in Canadian football is a person who has responsibility in enforcing the rules and maintaining the order of the game.
Equipment
Canadian football officials generally use the following equipment:
- Whistle
- Used to signal that the play has ended.
- Penalty Marker or Flag
- A bright orange coloured flag that is thrown on the field toward or at the spot of a foul. It is wrapped around a weight, such as sand, beans, or small ball, so it can be thrown with some distance and accuracy.
- Down Indicator
- A specially designed wristband that is used to remind officials of the current down. It has an elastic loop attached to it that is wrapped around the fingers. Usually, officials put the loop around their index finger when it is first down, the middle finger when it is second down, and so on. Instead of the custom-designed indicator, some officials use two thick rubber bands tied together as a down indicator: one rubber band is used as the wristband and the other is looped over the fingers. Some officials, especially Umpires, may also use a second indicator to keep track of where the ball was placed between the hash marks before the play (i.e. the right hash marks, the left ones, or at the midpoint between the two). This is important when they re-spot the ball after an incomplete pass.
Official (ice hockey)
In ice hockey, an official is a person who has some responsibility in enforcing the rules and maintaining the order of the game. There are two categories of officials, on-ice officials, who are the referees and linesmen that enforce the rules during game play, and off-ice officials, who have an administrative role rather than an enforcement role.
On-ice officials
As the name implies, on-ice officials do their job on the hockey rink. They are traditionally clad in a black hockey helmet, black trousers, and a black-and-white striped shirt. They wear standard hockey skates and carry a finger whistle, which they use to stop play. They communicate with players, coaches, off-ice officials, both verbally and via hand signals. Starting in 1955 with the introduction of the black-and-white jersey, NHL on-ice officials wore numbers on their back for identification. In 1977, NHL officials removed the number and had their surnames on the back of their jerseys for identification, normally in a single row across the shoulders. (Some officials with long names would have their name in two rows, the most notable example being Andy Van Hellemond.) Starting in 1994, however, NHL officials returned to wearing numbers on their shirts, a procedure adopted by other leagues.
Podcasts:
-
by Jaylib
-
by Lexicon
The Official
by: Jaylib[INTRO:]
Now I want everybody to clap your in this place
Come on!
Yea, tell me something good baby
Cause I sho' got something good for you
I wanna bring to you, (Yea) My Nigga!
J Dilla... one of the most slept on (ok!)
Patta Tay, Patta Tay...
I'm a sign yo pitty on the runney kine!
And pass it to my man
[VERSE 1:]
J Dilla
Holla!
Get it, Poppin of from the bottles to the collars
Clap hands, nigga... Get live with your mans nigga
It's thee Official... hands in the air let me see them wrist glow
Turn me up another notch in your system
You say you want the hot shit then listen
Madlib... and J Deezy
Doin it like we doing it for tv
And you don't wanna change the dial
World premier niggas rearrange your styles
Should have never been allowed in the game
All ya'll fake gangsters out
We shut it down like the enemy
I know all my real niggas feeling me
Official
[BRIDGE:]
Time for some real niggas in the game
It's, The Official
Who let Mad and Dilla in the gate
It's Thee Official
Bringin that shit since back in the days
It's the Official
Official [x8]
[VERSE 2:]
Ok...
Out we the old and in with the new shit
Quick to tighten the faces
Of niggas who catch cases of loose lips
Shut tit up... shut tit up!
Or see some real live nigga nuttin up!
And I don't be around the way
Like I used to I don't have time these days
I keeping busy makin power moves
I don't fuck with them coward dudes
I keeps it bouncing when the P.I's wanna
Wish for death, I'm C Bronson
It's whatever it's however you l
Think a nigga trying to move ahead of you then you right
We gon take this back, nigga
You already know, Jay spit that
It's Official
Time for some real niggas in the game
It's Official
Who let Mad and Dilla in the gate
It's the Official
Bringing that shit since back in the days
It's the official