The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is an international reference pressure defined as 101325 Pa and formerly used as unit of pressure.[1] For practical purposes it has been replaced by the bar which is 105 Pa.[1] The difference of about 1% is not significant for many applications, and is within the error range of common pressure gauges.

Contents

History [link]

In 1954 the 10th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) adopted standard atmosphere for general use and affirmed its definition of being precisely equal to 1,013,250 dynes per square centimeter (101 325 Pa).[2] This value was intended to represent the mean atmospheric pressure at mean sea level at the latitude of Paris, France, and as a practical matter, truly reflects the mean sea level pressure for many of the industrialized nations (those with latitudes similar to Paris).

In chemistry, the original definition of “Standard Temperature and Pressure” (STP) was a reference temperature of 0 °C (273.15 K) and pressure of 101.325 kPa (1 atm). However, in 1982, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended that for the purposes of specifying the physical properties of substances, “the standard pressure” should be defined as precisely 100 kPa (exactly 1 bar).[3]

Pressure units and equivalencies [link]

Pressure units
pascal bar technical atmosphere standard atmosphere torr pound per square inch
Pa bar at atm Torr psi
1 Pa ≡ 1 N/m2 10−5 1.0197×10−5 9.8692×10−6 7.5006×10−3 145.04×10−6
1 bar 105 ≡ 106 dyn/cm2 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744
1 at 0.980665 ×105 0.980665 ≡ 1 kp/cm2 0.96784 735.56 14.223
1 atm 1.01325 ×105 1.01325 1.0332 p0 760 14.696
1 Torr 133.322 1.3332×10−3 1.3595×10−3 1.3158×10−3 = 1 mmHg 19.337×10−3
1 psi 6.895×103 68.948×10−3 70.307×10−3 68.046×10−3 51.715 ≡ 1 lbF/in2


A pressure of 1 atm can also be stated as:

≡1.013 25 bar
≡ 101325 pascal (Pa) or 1013.25 hectopascal (hPa)
≡ 1013.25 millibars (mbar, also mb)
≡ 760 torr [B]
≈ 760.001 mm-Hg, 0 °C, subject to revision as more precise measurements of mercury’s density become available [B, C]
≈ 29.9213 in-Hg, 0 °C, subject to revision as more precise measurements of mercury’s density become available [C]
≈ 1.033 227 452 799 886 kgf/cm²
≈ 1.033 227 452 799 886 technical atmosphere
≈ 1033.227 452 799 886 cm–H2O, 4 °C [A]
≈ 406.782 461 732 2385 in–H2O, 4 °C [A]
≈ 14.695 948 775 5134 pounds-force per square inch (psi)
≈ 2116.216 623 673 94 pounds-force per square foot (psf)
Notes:
A This is the customarily-accepted value for cm–H2O, 4 °C. It is precisely the product of 1 kg-force per square centimeter (one technical atmosphere) times 1.013 25 (bar/atmosphere) divided by 0.980 665 (one gram-force). It is not accepted practice to define the value for water column based on a true physical realization of water (which would be 99.997 495% of this value because the true maximum density of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water is 0.999 974 95 kg/l at 3.984 °C). Also, this “physical realization” would still ignore the 8.285 cm–H2O reduction that would actually occur in a true physical realization due to the vapor pressure over water at 3.984 °C.
B Torr and mm-Hg, 0°C are often taken to be identical. For most practical purposes (to 5 significant digits), they are interchangeable.
C NIST value of 13.595 078(5) g/ml assumed for the density of Hg at 0 °C

Other applications [link]

Scuba divers and others use the word atmosphere and "atm" in relation to pressures that are relative to mean atmospheric pressure at sea level (1.013 bar). For example, a partial pressure of oxygen is calibrated typically using air at sea level, so is expressed in units of atm.

The old European unit technical atmosphere (at) is roughly equal to the gauge pressure under 10 m of water; 1 at = 98066.5 Pa.

See also [link]

References [link]

  1. ^ a b British Standard BS 350:2004 Conversion Factors for Units
  2. ^ BIPM Definition of the standard atmosphere
  3. ^ IUPAC.org, Gold Book, Standard Pressure

https://wn.com/Atmosphere_(unit)

Atmosphere (journal)

Atmosphere is a monthly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering research related to the Earth`s atmosphere. The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2010. The founding editor-in-chief was Daniela Jacob (Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology) until 2014. The current editor-in-chief is Robert Talbot (University of Houston).

Abstracting and indexing

Atmosphere is covered by the following indexing and abstracting databases:

  • Astrophysics Data System
  • AGORA
  • AGRIS
  • CAB Abstracts
  • Chemical Abstracts Service
  • EI/COMPENDEX
  • Current Contents/Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences
  • Directory of Open Access Journals
  • EI - Engineering Information(Elsevier)
  • GEOBASE
  • INSPEC (IET)
  • Journal Citation Reports
  • Science Citation Index Expanded
  • Scopus
  • Web of Science
  • Swiss National Library
  • According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 1.132.

    Features of Atmosphere

  • No Copyright Constraints Retain copyright of your work and make free use of your article Thorough Peer-Review
  • Atmosphere (Kaskade album)

    Atmosphere is the eighth studio album of American house DJ and electronic dance music producer Kaskade. It was released in the United States and Canada on September 10, 2013 through Ultra Records.

    Reception

    The album shares similar success with his previous studio album Fire & Ice. It became Kaskade's second No. 1 on the Billboard Dance/Electronic Albums chart. It also made its debut at #16 on the Billboard Top 200 chart, as well as number 7 on the Billboard Digital Albums chart and number 2 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart. Atmosphere earned Kaskade his second Grammy nomination for Best Dance/Electronica Album in 2014.

    The album received mixed reviews from mainstream critics. Metacritic rated Atmosphere an average score of 62 out of 100 based on 5 reviews.

    Track listing

    All songs written and composed by Ryan Raddon and Finn Bjarnson, except for tracks 3, 7 and 11. 

    Credits and personnel

    Credits adapted from AllMusic and Discogs.

    Chart performance

    Release history

    Swindle

    A swindle is a kind of fraud.

    Swindle may also refer to:

    People

  • Swindle (surname)
  • Places

  • Swindle Island, British Columbia, Canada
  • 8690 Swindle, an asteroid
  • Films

  • Il bidone (English titles The Swindle or The Swindlers), a 1955 Italian film directed by Federico Fellini
  • The Swindle (1997 film), a French crime-comedy film directed by Claude Chabrol and starring Isabelle Huppert
  • Swindle (2002 film), a 2002 crime thriller starring Tom Sizemore and Sherilyn Fenn
  • Swindle (2013 film), a television film based on Gordon Korman's book Swindle
  • Other uses

  • Swindle (chess), a ruse by which a chess player in a losing position tricks his opponent
  • Swindle (Transformers), several fictional characters in the Transformers universe
  • Swindle (novel), a 2008 children's book by Gordon Korman
  • Swindle (magazine), a bi-monthly arts and culture publication from 2004 to 2009
  • See also

  • Swindler (disambiguation)
  • Swindle (2013 film)

    Swindle is a 2013 American television film starring Noah Crawford, Chris O'Neal, Jennette McCurdy, Noah Munck, Ariana Grande, Ciara Bravo, and Fred Ewanuick. Based on Gordon Korman's novel of the same name, the movie tells the story of Griffin (Noah Crawford), a boy who retrieves his friend's valuable baseball card from an unscrupulous collectibles dealer with the help of his friends. Sneak peeks promoting the film aired on Nickelodeon during three Sam & Cat episodes. The film premiered August 5, 2013 to an audience of over 4.2 million viewers. The film was released on DVD on March 19, 2014. The film was released on Blu-ray on December 15, 2015.

    Plot

    Swindle (chess)

    In chess, a swindle is a ruse by which a player in a losing position tricks his opponent, and thereby achieves a win or draw instead of the expected loss. It may also refer more generally to obtaining a win or draw from a clearly losing position.I. A. Horowitz and Fred Reinfeld distinguish among "traps", "pitfalls", and "swindles". In their terminology, a "trap" refers to a situation where a player goes wrong through his own efforts. In a "pitfall", the beneficiary of the pitfall plays an active role, creating a situation where a plausible move by the opponent will turn out badly. A "swindle" is a pitfall adopted by a player who has a clearly lost game. Horowitz and Reinfeld observe that swindles, "though ignored in virtually all chess books", "play an enormously important role in over-the-board chess, and decide the fate of countless games".

    Although "swindling" in general usage is synonymous with cheating or fraud, in chess the term does not imply that the swindler has done anything unethical or unsportsmanlike. There is nonetheless a faint stigma attached to swindles, since players feel that one who has outplayed one's opponent for almost the entire game "is 'morally' entitled to victory" and a swindle is thus regarded as "rob[bing] the opponent of a well-earned victory". However, the best swindles can be quite artistic, and some are widely known.

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