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It has been suggested that Prisoners' rights be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since August 2011. |
A prisoner, also commonly called an inmate, is anyone who is deprived of liberty against their will. This can be by confinement, captivity, or by forcible restraint. The term applies particularly to those on trial or serving a prison sentence.[1]
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English law [link]
Prisoner is a legal term for a person who is imprisoned.[2]
In section 1 of the Prison Security Act 1992, the word "prisoner" means any person for the time being in a prison as a result of any requirement imposed by a court or otherwise that he be detained in legal custody.[3]
History
Prisoner was a legal term for a person prosecuted for felony. It was not applicable to a person prosecuted for misdemeanour.[4] The abolition of the distinction between felony and misdemeanour by section 1 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 has rendered this use of the word obsolete.
Glanville Williams said that referring to a person who had not been convicted as a prisoner was "invidious".[5]
History [link]
The earliest evidence of the existence of the prisoner dates back to 8,000 BC from prehistoric graves in Lower Egypt. This evidence suggests that people from Libya enslaved a San-like tribe.[6][7]
Psychological effects [link]
In solitary confinement [link]
Among the most extreme adverse effects suffered by prisoners, appear to be caused by solitary confinement for long durations. When held in "Special Housing Units" (SHU), prisoners are subject to sensory deprivation and lack of social contact that can have a severe negative impact on their mental health.
Long durations may lead to depression and changes to brain physiology. In the absence of a social context that is needed to validate perceptions of their environment, prisoners become highly malleable, abnormally sensitive, and exhibit increased vulnerability to the influence of the those controlling their environment. Social connection and the support provided from social interaction are prerequisite to long-term social adjustment as a prisoner.
Prisoners exhibit the paradoxical effect of social withdrawal after long periods of solitary confinement. A shift takes place from a craving for greater social contact, to a fear of it. They may grow lethargic and apathetic, and no longer be able to control their own conduct when released from solitary confinement. They can come to depend upon the prison structure to control and limit their conduct.
Long-term stays in solitary confinement can cause prisoners to develop clinical depression, and long-term impulse control disorder. Those with pre-existing mental illnesses are at a higher risk for developing psychiatric symptoms. Some common behaviours are self-mutilation, suicidal tendencies, and psychosis.
A psychopathological condition identified as "SHU syndrome" has been observed among such prisoners. Symptoms are characterized as problems with concentration and memory, distortions of perception, and hallucinations. Most convicts suffering from SHU syndrome exhibit extreme generalized anxiety and panic disorder, with some suffering amnesia.[8]
Stockholm syndrome [link]
The psychological syndrome known as Stockholm syndrome, describes a paradoxical phenomenon where, over time, hostages have positive feelings towards their captors.
Inmate culture [link]
The founding of ethnographic prison sociology as a discipline, from which most of the meaningful knowledge of prison life and culture stems, is commonly credited to the publication of two key texts:[9] Donald Clemmer's The Prison Community,[10] which was first published in 1940 and republished in 1958; and Gresham Sykes classic study The Society of Captives,[11] which was also published in 1958. Clemmer's text, based on his study of 2,400 convicts over three years at the Menard Branch of the Illinois State Penitentiary where he worked as a clinical sociologist,[12] propagated the notion of the existence of a distinct inmate culture and society with values and norms antithetical to both the prison authority and the wider society.
In this world, for Clemmer, these values, formalized as the "inmate code", provided behavioural precepts that unified prisoners and fostered antagonism to prison officers and the prison institution as a whole. The process whereby inmates acquired this set of values and behavioural guidelines as they adapted to prison life he termed "prisonization", which he defined as the "taking on, in greater or lesser degree, the folkways, mores, customs and general culture of the penitentiary'.[13] However, while Clemmer argued that all prisoners experienced some degree of prisonization this was not a uniform process and factors such as the extent to which a prisoner involved himself in primary group relations in the prison and the degree to which he identified with the external society all had a considerable impact.[14]
Prisonization as the inculcation of a convict culture was defined by identification with primary groups in prison, the use of prison slang and argot,[15] the adoption of specified rituals and a hostility to prison authority in contrast to inmate solidarity and was asserted by Clemmer to create individuals who were acculturated into a criminal and deviant way of life that stymied all attempts to reform their behaviour.[16]
Convict code [link]
The convict code was theorized as a set of tacit behavioural norms which exercised a pervasive impact on the conduct of prisoners. Competency in following the routines demanded by the code partly determined the inmate’s identity as a convict.[17] As a set of values and behavioural guidelines, the convict code referred to the behaviour of inmates in antagonising staff members and to the mutual solidarity between inmates as well as the tendency to the non-disclosure to prison authorities of prisoner activities and to resistance to rehabilitation programmes.[18] Thus, it was seen a providing an expression and form of communal resistance and allowed for the psychological survival of the individual under extremely repressive and regimented systems of carceral control.[19]
Sykes outlined some of the most salient points of this code as it applied in the post-war period in the United States:
- Don't interfere with inmate interests.
- Never rat on a con.
- Don't be nosy.
- Keep off a man's back.
- Don't put a guy on the spot.
- Be loyal to your class.
- Be cool.
- Do your own time.
- Don't bring heat.
- Don't exploit inmates.
- Don't cop out.
- Be tough.
- Be wary, and try to be a man.
- Never talk to a screw.
- Have a connection.
- Be sharp.[20]
Rights [link]
United States [link]
Both federal and state laws govern the rights of prisoners. Prisoners in the United States do not have full rights under the Constitution, however, they are protected by Amendment VIII which prohibits cruel and unusual punishment. This Amendment ensures that prisoners are provided with a minimum standard of living.[21] The Geneva Convention, a World Rights organization, states that prisoners may not do work against their will, and many more rules observed in many countries.
Types [link]
Criminals are prisoners that are incarcerated under the legal system. In the United States, a federal inmate is a person convicted of violating a federal law, who is then incarcerated at a prison that exclusively houses similar criminals. The term most often applies to those convicted of a felony.
Detainees are prisoners. Certain governments use this term to refer to individuals held in custody. They are referred to detainees as it is a general term, and as such, does not require the subject to be classified and treated (under the law) as either a prisoner of war or a suspect or convict in criminal cases. It is generally defined with the broad definition: "someone held in custody".
Prisoners of war, also known as a POWs, are individuals incarcerated in relation to wars. He or she can be a member of the civilian population, or a captured soldier.
Political prisoners describe those imprisoned for participation or connection to political activity. Such inmates challenge the legitimacy of the detention.
Hostages are historically defined as prisoners held as security for the fulfillment of an agreement, or as a deterrent against an act of war. In modern times, it refers to someone who is seized by a criminal abductor.
Slaves are prisoners that are held captive for their use as labourers. Various methods have been used throughout history to deprive slaves of their liberty, including forcible restraint.
Other types of prisoner can include those under police arrest, house arrest, those in insane asylums, internment camps, and peoples restricted to a specific area such as Jewish people in the Warsaw ghetto.
See also [link]
References [link]
- ^ "Prisoner - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prisoner. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
- ^ John Rastell. Termes de la Ley. 1636. Page 202. Digital copy from Google Books.
- ^ The Prison Security Act 1992, section 1(6)
- ^ O. Hood Phillips. A First Book of English Law. Sweet and Maxwell. Fourth Edition. 1960. Page 151.
- ^ Glanville Williams. Learning the Law. Eleventh Edition. Stevens. 1982. Page 3, note 3.
- ^ "Historical survey > Slave-owning societies". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Thomas, Hugh: The Slave Trade Simon and Schuster; Rockefeller Centre; New York, New York; 1997
- ^ Bruce A. Arrigo, Jennifer Leslie Bullock (November 2007). "The Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prisoners in Supermax Units, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 2008-Arrigo-622-40, DOI: 10.1177/0306624X07309720". The University of North Carolina at Charlotte. https://ijo.sagepub.com/content/52/6/622.
- ^ Simon, Jonathan (1 August 2000). "The `Society of Captives' in the Era of Hyper-Incarceration". Theoretical Criminology 4 (3): 287. DOI:10.1177/1362480600004003003. Crewe, Ben (2006). "Male prisoners’ orientations towards female officers in an English prison". Punishment & Society 8 (4). DOI:10.1177/1462474506067565.
- ^ Clemmer, Donald ([1940] 1958). The Prison Community. New York: Holt, Rhineheart and Winston.
- ^ Sykes, Gresham M. (1958). The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Secutiry Prison. Princeton: Princeton University Press. https://books.google.ie/books?id=_YjooNYRMQQC.
- ^ Clemmer, Donald (Mar. - Apr. 1938). "Leadership Phenomena in a Prison Community". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 28 (6): 861 n. 1.
- ^ DeRosia, Victoria R. (1998). Living Inside Prison Walls: Adjustment Behavior (1. publ. ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 23. ISBN 0-275-95895-7. https://books.google.ie/books?id=5-m-b-IgbM4C&pg=PA23.
- ^ Faine, John R. (Autumn 1973). "A self-consistency approach to prisonization". Sociological Quarterly 14 (4): 576.
- ^ Pollack, Joycelyn M. (2006). Prisons: Today and Tomorrow. Ontario: Jones & Bartlett Publishers Inc.. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0-7637-2904-3. https://books.google.ie/books?id=LsQtASGLeZUC&pg=PA95.
- ^ Bright, Charles (1996). The Powers that Punish : Prison and Politics in the Era of the "Big House," 1920-2009. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-472-10732-1. https://books.google.ie/books?id=u9c2qHtsxUYC&pg=PA6.
- ^ Watson, Rod; Sharrock, Wes (1990). Conversational actions and organizational actions. 8. p. 26. https://www.persee.fr/articleAsPDF/reso_0984-5372_1990_hos_8_2_3547/article_reso_0984-5372_1990_hos_8_2_3547.pdf.
- ^ Brannigan, Augustine (May 1976). "Review: D. Lawrence Wieder, ‘’Language and Social Reality: The Case of Telling the Convict Code’’". Contemporary Sociology 5 (3): 349.
- ^ Colvin, Mark (February 2010). "Review: David Ward. ‘’Alcatraz: The Gangster Years’’". The American Historical Review 115 (1): 247.
- ^ Pollack, Joycelyn M. (2006). Prisons: Today and Tomorrow. Ontario: Jones & Bartlett Publishers Inc.. p. 94. ISBN 0-7637-2904-3. https://books.google.ie/books?id=LsQtASGLeZUC&pg=PA94.
- ^ "Prisoners' rights | LII / Legal Information Institute". Topics.law.cornell.edu. 2012-03-02. https://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/prisoners_rights. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
Further reading [link]
- Grassian, S. (1983). Psychopathological effects of solitary confinement. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140(11).
- Grassian, S., & Friedman, N. (1986). Effects of sensory deprivation in psychiatric seclusion and solitary confinement. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 8(1).
- Haney, C. (1993). “Infamous punishment”: The psychological consequences of isolation. National Prison Project Journal, 8(1).
External links [link]
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Look up prisoner, inmate, convict, or detainee in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Prisoners |
- Human Rights Watch on Detainees
- ACLU on Detainees
- Victorian Prisoners' Photograph Albums from Wandsworth prison on The National Archives' website.
- Inside Prison- inside prison life, prison stories, prison conditions
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Prisoner (The Weeknd song)
"Prisoner" is a song by Canadian recording artist The Weeknd featuring American singer Lana Del Rey for his second studio album Beauty Behind the Madness (2015). The artists co-wrote the song with Illangelo, who co-produced it with The Weeknd.
Commercial performance
"Prisoner" debuted at No. 47 on the Billboard Hot 100, with 51,291 copies sold in its first week. The song also accrued 3.7 million US streams.
Live performances
Del Rey and The Weeknd performed the song live together for the first time on December 9, 2015 at The Forum, Los Angeles.
Charts
References
External links
Prisoner (Cher album)
Prisoner is the 16th studio album by American singer-actress Cher, released on October 22, 1979 by Casablanca Records. The album was a commercial failure and failed to the charts. "Hell on Wheels" was released as the lead single which had a moderate success, peaking at number fifty-nine on the Billboard Hot 100.
Album information
Prisoner (initially planned to be released under the title Mirror Image) was Cher's second album of 1979, and was released nine months after Take Me Home.
This was the last album of Cher's to date to be produced by Bob Esty, with Esty and Michelle Aller contributing several of the songs. Compared to the disco style of Take Me Home, Prisoner featured a relatively new wave sound. Prisoner also marked the first time that Cher released an album which featured songs that were written exclusively for her.
The producer wanted to take advantage of Cher's image and the media obsession with her. On the front cover of the album, she appears to be completely naked, with long hair draped to cover her breasts. She is wrapped in chains and wearing a wide metal collar. Her wrists and ankles are tightly shackled with wide metal bands. The cover spurred controversy among some women's rights groups for her perceived "sex slave" image.
TAT European Airlines
Transport Aérien Transrégional was a French regional airline with its head office on the grounds of Tours Val de Loire Airport in Tours. It was formed in 1968 as Touraine Air Transport (TAT) by M. Marchais.Air France acquired a minority stake in the airline in 1989. Between 1993 and 1996 the company was gradually taken over by British Airways. It subsequently merged with Air Liberté. The merged entity was sold on to the SAir Group in 2001, which in turn merged it with AOM.
History
Touraine Air Transport commenced scheduled operations in 1968. The airline acquired its first Beech 99 Airliner twin-engined turboprop passenger airliner in June 1971 and used this type to commence French internal services. These aircraft remained in operation with TAT until 1975.
During the 1970s TAT began building up a comprehensive network of regional, short-haul domestic and international scheduled routes, as a result of being taken over in 1973 by Société Auxiliare de Services et Materiel Aéronautiques (SASMAT), the owner of rival French regional airline Rousseau Aviation, as well as the subsequent mergers with regional rivals Taxi Avia France and Air Paris. The resulting regional network served 30 provincial points in France and neighbouring European countries from Paris Orly, Lyons Satolas, Lille and St. Brieuc, respectively.
TAT2
TAT2 could refer to :
TAT-9
TAT-9 was the 9th transatlantic telephone cable system, in operation from 1992 to 2004, initially carrying 80,000 telephone circuits between Europe (Goonhilly, United Kingdom ; Saint-Hilaire-de-Riez, France ; Conil de la Frontera, Spain) and North America (Manahawkin, United States ; Pennant Point, Canada). It was built by an international consortium of co-owners and suppliers. Co-owners included AT&T Corporation, British Telecom and France Telecom.
TAT-9 was the first fiber optic system to operate at 565 Mbit/s, twice the speed of the first transatlantic fiber optic system, TAT-8. It was also the first system to have the ability to switch traffic on demand between the five landing points: Canada, the United States, France, Spain and the United Kingdom. This enabled the smaller countries in the network to afford their own landing points, and also allowed the network to accommodate for large changes in traffic demands at any individual station, such as the dramatic increase during the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona.
