Drug overdose
The term drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) describes the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are recommended or generally practiced. An overdose may result in a toxic state or death.
Classification
The word "overdose" implies that there is a common safe dosage and usage for the drug; therefore, the term is commonly only applied to drugs, not poisons, though even poisons are harmless at a low enough dosage.
Drug overdoses are sometimes caused intentionally to commit suicide or as self-harm, but many drug overdoses are accidental, the result of intentional or unintentional misuse of medication. Intentional misuse leading to overdose can include using prescribed or unprescribed drugs in excessive quantities in an attempt to produce euphoria.
Usage of illicit drugs of unexpected purity, in large quantities, or after a period of drug abstinence can also induce overdose. Cocaine users who inject intravenously can easily overdose accidentally, as the margin between a pleasurable drug sensation and an overdose is small.
Let There Be Rock
Let There Be Rock is an album by Australian hard rock band AC/DC. It was the band's third internationally released studio album and the fourth to be released in Australia. All songs were written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young and Bon Scott. It was originally released on 21 March 1977 in Australia on the Albert Productions label. A modified international edition was released on 25 July 1977 on Atlantic Records.
Recording
By 1977, AC/DC had become extremely successful in their native Australia and had also achieved a degree of popularity in the U.K. and Europe, largely on the strength of their pulverizing live show. However, Atlantic Records in the United States had rejected the band's third album Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap, feeling the production was not up to par, and the band, which had yet to tour America, returned to Albert Studios in Sydney to record another album. From the beginning, it appears they intended to make a statement, with guitarist Angus Young telling VH1's Behind the Music in 2000, "Me and Malcolm said, 'Well, we really want a lot of guitars,' you know? Big guitars." The band's first album released in Australia, High Voltage, had contained glam-rock elements, while their ensuing releases had been recorded piecemeal as the group toured incessantly and were also altered for international release. Let There Be Rock, on the other hand, was recorded in one go and represented a major evolution in the band's sound, with many critics and fans citing it as the first true AC/DC album; in his book Highway to Hell: The Life and Times of AC/DC Legend Bon Scott, author Clinton Walker observes, "Let There Be Rock was the first fully rounded AC/DC album. The band had finally found itself."
Overdose (Ciara song)
"Overdose" is a song recorded by American singer Ciara for her self-titled fifth studio album (2013). It was written by Josh Abraham, Oliver Goldstein, Ali Tamposi, Olivia Waithe and Ciara, while its production was handled by the former two. Ciara and Kuk Harrell were responsible for the song's vocal production. Notable for its shift from her more contemporary R&B sound towards a predominantly pop-orientated vocal style for the singer, "Overdose" served as a product of Ciara's experimentation and was recognized as the purest pop track on Ciara. An uptempo dance-pop, electropop and nu-disco song, its "club-friendly" production comprises rupturing synths and gritty, automatic beats. Its lyrical content act as an ode to codependency and are based on the subject of unhealthy infatuation.
"Overdose" initially leaked as an extended snippet on July 17, 2012, and then in full in June 2013. The song was originally recognized as a "fan favorite", before garnering favorable reviews from music critics, some of which went on to publish campaigns for the track be released as a single. Its accompanying artwork features Ciara's then-fiancé Future and resulted in widespread media attention for its provocative imagery. Though the song impacted urban contemporary and rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States—on September 18 and October 15, 2013, respectively—it failed to receive a full-scale single release, when its digital release was later cancelled and its accompanying music video and promotional performances failed to materialize. As a result, "Overdose" failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 and garner success commercially.
Permanganate
A permanganate is the general name for a chemical compound containing the manganate(VII) ion, (MnO4−). Because manganese is in the +7 oxidation state, the permanganate(VII) ion is a strong oxidizing agent. The ion has tetrahedral geometry. Permanganate solutions are purple in color and are stable in neutral or slightly alkaline media.The exact chemical reaction is dependent upon the organic contaminants present and the oxidant utilized. For example, trichloroethene (C2HCl3) is oxidized by sodium permanganate to form carbon dioxide (CO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2), sodium ions (Na+), hydronium ions (H+), and chloride ions (Cl−).
In an acidic solution, permanganate(VII) is reduced to the colourless +2 oxidation state of the manganese(II) (Mn2+) ion.
In a strongly basic solution, permanganate(VII) is reduced to the green +6 oxidation state of the manganate ion, MnO42−.
In a neutral medium however, it gets reduced to the brown +4 oxidation state of manganese dioxide MnO2.
Production
Permanganates can be produced by oxidation of manganese compounds such as manganese chloride or manganese sulfate by strong oxidizing agents, for instance, sodium hypochlorite or lead dioxide:
Manganese dioxide
Manganese(IV) oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula MnO
2. This blackish or brown solid occurs naturally as the mineral pyrolusite, which is the main ore of manganese and a component of manganese nodules. The principal use for MnO2 is for dry-cell batteries, such as the alkaline battery and the zinc-carbon battery.MnO
2 is also used as a pigment and as a precursor to other manganese compounds, such as KMnO
4. It is used as a reagent in organic synthesis, for example, for the oxidation of allylic alcohols. MnO2 in the α polymorph can incorporate a variety of atoms (as well as water molecules) in the "tunnels" or "channels" between the magnesium oxide octahedra. There is considerable interest in α-MnO2 as a possible cathode for lithium ion batteries.
Structure
Several polymorphs of MnO
2 are claimed, as well as a hydrated form. Like many other dioxides, MnO
2 crystallizes in the rutile crystal structure (this polymorph is called β-MnO
2), with three-coordinate oxide and octahedral metal centres.MnO
2 is characteristically nonstoichiometric, being deficient in oxygen. The complicated solid-state chemistry of this material is relevant to the lore of "freshly prepared" MnO
2 in organic synthesis. The α-polymorph of MnO
2 has a very open structure with ``channels" which can accommodate metal atoms such as silver or barium. α-MnO2 is often called Hollandite, after a closely related mineral.
Manganese(II) oxide
Manganese(II) oxide (systematically named manganese(2+) oxide(2−)) is an inorganic compound with chemical formula MnO. It forms green crystals. The compound is produced on a large scale as a component of fertilizers and food additives.
Structure, stoichiometry, reactivity
Like many monoxides, MnO adopts the rock salt structure, where cations and anions are both octahedrally coordinated. Also like many oxides, manganese(II) oxide is often nonstoichiometric: its composition can vary from MnO to MnO1.045.
Below 118 K MnO is antiferromagnetic. MnO has the distinction of being one of the first compounds to have its magnetic structure determined by neutron diffraction, the report appearing in 1951. This study showed that the Mn2+ ions form a face centered cubic magnetic sub-lattice where there are ferromagnetically coupled sheets that are anti-parallel with adjacent sheets.
Manganese(II) oxide undergoes the chemical reactions typical of an ionic oxide. Upon treatment with acids, it converts to the corresponding manganese(II) salt and water. Oxidation of manganese(II) oxide gives manganese(III) oxide.
