Atmosphere

An atmosphere (from Greek ἀτμός (atmos), meaning "vapour", and σφαῖρα (sphaira), meaning "sphere") is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body of sufficient mass that is held in place by the gravity of the body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity is high and the atmosphere's temperature is low.

The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen. It also contains oxygen used by most organisms for respiration and carbon dioxide used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis. The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays. Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.

The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star, and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards. Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere.

Atmosphere (unit)

The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa (1.01325 bar). It is sometimes used as a reference or standard pressure.

History

In 1954 the 10th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) adopted standard atmosphere for general use and affirmed its definition of being precisely equal to 1,013,250 dynes per square centimetre (101325 Pa). This value was intended to represent the mean atmospheric pressure at mean sea level at the latitude of Paris, France, and does reflect the mean sea level pressure for many industrialized nations that are at broadly similar latitudes.

In chemistry and in various industries, the reference pressure referred to in “Standard Temperature and Pressure” (STP) was commonly 1 atm (101.325 kPa) but standards have since diverged; in 1982, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended that for the purposes of specifying the physical properties of substances, “standard pressure” should be precisely 100 kPa (1 bar).

Atmosphere (journal)

Atmosphere is a monthly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering research related to the Earth`s atmosphere. The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2010. The founding editor-in-chief was Daniela Jacob (Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology) until 2014. The current editor-in-chief is Robert Talbot (University of Houston).

Abstracting and indexing

Atmosphere is covered by the following indexing and abstracting databases:

According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 1.132.

Features of Atmosphere

Multiple

The word multiple can refer to:

Economics

Sociology

Science

Printing

Fiction

Music

List of multiple discoveries

Historians and sociologists have remarked on the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before."

Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to only a few historic instances involving giants of scientific research. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science.

Multiples (album)

Multiples is an album by electronic musician Keith Fullerton Whitman, released in 2005 on the Kranky label. The album was recorded at Harvard University where Whitman was lecturing at the time, and uses the university's supply of vintage synthesizers and other electronic instruments.

Track listing