Mel scale

The mel scale, named by Stevens, Volkmann, and Newman in 1937, is a perceptual scale of pitches judged by listeners to be equal in distance from one another. The reference point between this scale and normal frequency measurement is defined by assigning a perceptual pitch of 1000 mels to a 1000 Hz tone, 40 dB above the listener's threshold. Above about 500 Hz, increasingly large intervals are judged by listeners to produce equal pitch increments. As a result, four octaves on the hertz scale above 500 Hz are judged to comprise about two octaves on the mel scale. The name mel comes from the word melody to indicate that the scale is based on pitch comparisons.

A popular formula to convert hertz into mel is:

History and other formulas

There is no single mel-scale formula. The popular formula from O'Shaugnessy's book can be expressed with different log bases:

The corresponding inverse expressions are:

There were published curves and tables on psychophysical pitch scales since Steinberg's 1937 curves based on just-noticeable differences of pitch. More curves soon followed in Fletcher and Munson's 1937 and Fletcher's 1938 and Stevens' 1937 and Stevens and Volkmann's 1940 papers using a variety of experimental methods and analysis approaches.

Scale

Scale or scales may refer to:

Common meanings

Places

Mathematics

Science

Scale length (string instruments)

When referring to stringed instruments, the scale length (often simply called the "scale") is considered to be the maximum vibrating length of the strings to produce sound, and determines the range of tones that string is capable of producing under a given tension. In the classical community, it may be called simply "string length." On instruments in which strings are not "stopped" or divided in length (typically by frets, the player's fingers, or other mechanism), such as the piano, it is the actual length of string between the nut and the bridge.

String instruments produce sound through the vibration of their strings. The range of tones these strings can produce is determined by three primary factors: the mass of the string (related to its thickness as well as other aspects of its construction: density of the metal/alloy etc.), the tension placed upon it, and the instrument's scale length.

On many, but not all, instruments, the strings are at least roughly the same length, so the instrument's scale can be expressed as a single length measurement, as for example in the case of the violin or guitar. On other instruments, the strings are of different lengths according to their pitch, as for example in the case of the harp or piano.

Scale (album)

Scale is a studio album by British electronic musician Herbert. It was released via Studio !K7 on May 29, 2006.

According to the liner notes, 635 objects were used to create the album. These include traditional instruments, such as violins and guitars, as well as other objects, such as breakfast cereal, gas pumps and coffins.

Reception

At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Scale received an average score of 81% based on 20 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".

It ranked at number 35 on Pitchfork Media's "Top 50 Albums of 2006" list. "Something Isn't Right" ranked at number 17 on Pitchfork Media's "Top 100 Tracks of 2006" list.

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Mel (surname)

Mel is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

Mel (album)

Mel is a studio album by Brazilian singer Maria Bethânia, released in 1979.

Track listing

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Immunostaining

Immunostaining is a general term in biochemistry that applies to any use of an antibody-based method to detect a specific protein in a sample. The term immunostaining was originally used to refer to the immunohistochemical staining of tissue sections, as first described by Albert Coons in 1941. Now however, immunostaining encompasses a broad range of techniques used in histology, cell biology, and molecular biology that utilise antibody-based staining methods.

Immunostaining techniques

Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemistry or IHC staining of tissue sections (or immunocytochemistry, which is the staining of cells), is perhaps the most commonly applied immunostaining technique. While the first cases of IHC staining used fluorescent dyes (see immunofluorescence), other non-fluorescent methods using enzymes such as peroxidase (see immunoperoxidase staining) and alkaline phosphatase are now used. These enzymes are capable of catalysing reactions that give a coloured product that is easily detectable by light microscopy. Alternatively, radioactive elements can be used as labels, and the immunoreaction can be visualized by autoradiography.