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Instinct or innate behavior is the inherent inclination of a living organism toward a particular behavior.

The simplest example of an instinctive behavior is a fixed action pattern, in which a very short to medium length sequence of actions, without variation, are carried out in response to a clearly defined stimulus.

An instinctive behavior of shaking water from wet fur.

Overview [link]

Any behavior is instinctive if it is performed without being based upon prior experience, that is, in the absence of learning and is therefore an expression of innate biological factors. Sea turtles, newly hatched on a beach, will automatically move toward the ocean. A joey climbs into its mother's pouch upon being born.^[1] Honeybees communicate by dancing in the direction of a food source without formal instruction. Other examples include animal fighting, animal courtship behavior, internal escape functions, and building of nests. All of these are examples of complex behaviors and are thus substantially different from simple reflex behaviors. A formal definition of instinct is as follows: "An instinct is an inborn complex pattern of behavior that must exist in every member of the species and, because it is embedded in the genetic code, cannot be overcome by force of will. It should be distinguished from a reflex which is a simple response of an organism to a specific stimulus, such as the contraction of the pupil in response to bright light or the spasmodic movement of the lower leg when the knee is tapped. Instincts, in contrast, are complex sequential stimulus-response patterns; such behaviors are readily identified in non-human animals".^[2]

Many people remain in disbelief at the mention that human behavior is not instinctually driven. This is because it is impossible to deny the fact that humans are motivated by strong biological forces. These strong biological forces however are more properly referred to as drives. While instincts are inflexible, drives can take many forms and bend to human will. The human sex drive is the primary example. All humans have sexuality although it takes a wide variety of forms and some humans even abstain from sexual behavior altogether thereby exercising control over their sexuality. A secondary point of confusion is that the term instinct has entered into the popular vernacular as widely used metaphor to describe a gut feeling or intuition. In this case a scientific concept has become at the same time a literary trope and this semantic conflation is the source of much serious confusion. Another historical source of error derives from how the concept of instinct was popularized in the human sciences by Freud who in his original writings actually used the term trieb and not instinct. However, English translations of his works changed "trieb" to "instinct" thus popularizing a technical error in scientific discourse as well as popular perception.

Commonly cited examples of presumed instincts in humans are the "maternal instinct" and the "survival instinct". These examples however do not conform to the scientific definition of instinct. Many human females do not desire children and furthermore some mothers kill their own children. Similarly, many humans contradict their own survival through suicide.

The role of instincts in determining the behavior of animals varies from species to species. The higher up the evolutionary ladder the greater is the role of the cerebral cortex and social learning and instincts play a lesser role. A comparison between a crocodile and an elephant illustrates how mammals for example are heavily dependent on social learning. Lionesses and chimpanzees raised in zoos away from their birth mothers most often reject their own offspring because they have not been taught the skills of mothering. Such is not the case with lower species such as reptiles.

Reflexes and instinct [link]

Examples of behaviors that do not require conscious will include many reflexes. The stimulus in a reflex may not require brain activity but instead may travel to the spinal cord as a message that is then transmitted back through the body, tracing a path called the reflex arc. Reflexes are similar to fixed action patterns in that most reflexes meet the criteria of a FAP. However, a fixed action pattern can be processed in the brain as well; a male stickleback's instinctive aggression towards anything red during his mating season is such an example. Examples of instinctive behaviors in humans include many of the primitive reflexes, such as rooting and suckling, behaviors which are present in mammals.

Maturational instincts [link]

Some instinctive behaviors depend on maturational processes to appear. For instance, we commonly refer to birds "learning" to fly. However, young birds have been experimentally reared in devices that prevent them from moving their wings until they reached the age at which their cohorts were flying. These birds flew immediately and normally when released, showing that their improvement resulted from neuromuscular maturation and not true learning.^[3]

History [link]

Primitive reflexes

In biology [link]

Instinct gets its earliest thorough treatment in biological literature courtesy of the famous entomologist Jean Henri Fabre. Fabre considered instinct to be any behavior which did not require cognition or consciousness to perform. Fabre's inspiration was his intense study of insects, some of whose behaviors he wrongly considered fixed and not subject to environmental influence. ^[4]

Instinct as a concept fell out of favor in the 1920s with the rise of behaviorism and such thinkers as B. F. Skinner, which held that most significant behavior is learned. These beliefs, like Fabre's belief that most behaviors were simply reflexive, also proved to be too simplistic to account for the complex emotional and social behavior of human beings.

An interest in innate behaviors arose again in the 1950s with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen who made the distinction between instinct and learned behaviors. Our modern understanding of instinctual behavior in animals owes much to their work. For instance, in imprinting a bird has a sensitive period during which it learns who its mother is. Konrad Lorenz famously had a goose imprint on his boots. Thereafter the goose would follow whomever wore the boots. The identity of the goose's mother was learned, but the goose's behavior towards the boots was instinctive.

In psychology [link]

The term "instinct" has had a long and varied use in psychology and was first used in 1870s by Wilhelm Wundt. By the close of the 19th century most repeated behavior was considered instinctual. In a survey of the literature at that time, one researcher chronicled 4000 human instincts, meaning someone applied the label to any behavior that was repetitive.^{[citation needed]} As research became more rigorous and terms better defined, instinct as an explanation for human behavior became less common. In a conference in 1960, chaired by Frank Beach, a pioneer in comparative psychology, and attended by luminaries in the field, the term was restricted in its application.^{[citation needed]} During the 60's and 70's, textbooks still contained some discussion of instincts in reference to human behavior. By the year 2000, a survey of the 12 best selling textbooks in Introductory Psychology revealed only one reference to instincts, and that was in regard to Sigmund Freud's referral to the "id" instincts.^{[citation needed]}. In this sense, instincts have become increasingly superfluous in trying to understand human psychological behavior.

Some Freudian Psychoanalysts have retained the term instinct to refer to human motivational forces (such as sex and aggression), sometimes represented as Eros - life instinct and Thanatos - death instinct. This use of the term motivational forces has been replaced by the term drives to correct the original error in the translation of |Freud's work.^{[citation needed]}

Psychologist Abraham Maslow argued that humans no longer have instincts because we have the ability to override them in certain situations. He felt that what is called instinct is often imprecisely defined, and really amounts to strong drives. For Maslow, an instinct is something which cannot be overridden, and therefore while it may have applied to humans in the past it no longer does.^[5]

The book Instinct (1961) established a number of criteria which distinguish instinctual from other kinds of behavior. To be considered instinctual a behavior must a) be automatic, b) be irresistible, c) occur at some point in development, d) be triggered by some event in the environment, e) occur in every member of the species, f) be unmodifiable, and g) govern behavior for which the organism needs no training (although the organism may profit from experience and to that degree the behavior is modifiable). ^[6]

In a classic paper published in 1972^[7], the psychologist Richard Herrnstein decries Fabre's opinions on instinct (see: In biology section).

Sociobiology [link]

Science has long looked for the keys that explain the biological basis of human behavior. This was explained in the 19th Century through the measurement of skull shape and other dimensions of human physiology. It led to problematic formulations that supported eugenics and scientific racism. The quest to find the biological basis of human behavior continues in contemporary manifestations of sociobiology.

Sociobiology is the field of study that examines the biological bases of human behavior. Its chief proponent E.O Wilson has stated that although humans do not have defined instincts there are nevertheless numerous biological bases of human behavior. The fact that humans are bipedal and have hands to make tools and have complex brains are all biological features that impart influence on human behavior. While many sociobiologists still find no problem in extrapolating certain characteristics from the animal kingdom onto human behavior this conflationary tendency is more a feature of early sociobiology such as that of Desmond Morris. Contemporary sociobiologists look for keys to human behavior in the influence of hormones, genetics and the influences that nutrition has on gestating fetuses and on subsequently on the behavior of children and adults. Sociobiology is today heavily influenced by evolutionary biology and evolutionary psychology. The competitive behavior of humans is often compared to that of animals. This tendency in evolutionary theories of human behavior is often criticized as ignoring the effects of unequal social structures on the construction of pyramidal hierarchies that create human competitiveness.

See also [link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Instinct

• Biological Imperative
• Innatism
• Nature versus Nurture
• Psychological nativism

References [link]