Confounding

In statistics, a confounding variable (also confounding factor, a confound, or confounder) is an extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates (directly or inversely) with both the dependent variable and the independent variable.

A spurious relationship is a perceived relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable that has been estimated incorrectly because the estimate fails to account for a confounding factor. The incorrect estimation suffers from omitted-variable bias.

While specific definitions may vary, in essence a confounding variable fits the following four criteria, here given in a hypothetical situation with variable of interest "V", confounding variable "C" and outcome of interest "O":

  • C is associated (inversely or directly) with O
  • C is associated with O, independent of V
  • C is associated (inversely or directly) with V
  • C is not in the causal pathway of V to O (C is not a direct consequence of V, not a way by which V produces O)
  • The preceding correlation-based definition, however, is metaphorical at best – a growing number of analysts agree that confounding is a causal concept, and as such, cannot be described in terms of correlations nor associations (see causal definition).

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    Latest News for: confounding

    'No idea what that means': Anderson Cooper confounded by Trump aide's 'sucked in' theory

    Raw Story 27 Mar 2025
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    Orlando Weekly 26 Mar 2025
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    Iowa State's season comes to confounding end vs Ole Miss in NCAA Tournament

    Dispatch Argus 24 Mar 2025
    The start of both halves Sunday showed why the Cyclones ranked No. 2 in the country this season. The rest of the game showed why they lost eight of their final 16 games ... .

    Asking Eric: It’s confounding that people insist I need to be friends with my ex, ...

    Lehigh Valley 24 Mar 2025
    DEAR ERIC. I have been divorced for nearly 10 years. My ex-husband had an affair when I was a new mother and abandoned me after 16 years of marriage ....

    Donald Trump and Elon Musk confound Susan Collins’ pledge to bring money to Maine

    Bangor Daily News 24 Mar 2025
    After U.S. Sen. Susan Collins and the Republican-led Congress approved this month a bill that averted a government shutdown but cut out earmarks for states, the senator’s website got a subtle edit ... It nods to the larger question facing Collins ... Sen ... Rep.

    Long-tailed Macaque Confounded By Toy Dog

    Rumble 17 Mar 2025
    Click the Rumble article link to see the video ....

    St. Patrick (17 March): God Chooses the Little & Humble to Confound the Strong

    Bitchute 17 Mar 2025
    Go to the source via the article link to view the video or click the video icon ....

    NFL free agency grades: Bears, Broncos, Vikings impress in first wave, Texans confound

    Usatoday 14 Mar 2025
    Darnold, Smith, Fields start quarterback carousel in NFL free agency. Sam Darnold, Geno Smith and Justin Fields among the early quarterback moves in NFL free agency. Tyler Dragon breaks down which team stands to gain the most ... Arizona Cardinals. Grade ... B.

    Case of three siblings abandoned as babies in London suburb continues to confound police

    The Irish Times 12 Mar 2025
    The Underground train pulled into one of the above-ground stations common on the outer edges of London. I stepped off the Tube, alone on the eastbound platform. I just wasn’t as alone as the guy on the opposite, westbound side ... So, too, is deprivation ... .

    Trump trade war confounds CEOs, deepening economic unease

    The Spokesman-Review 12 Mar 2025
    President Donald Trump faced more than 100 top business leaders Tuesday, as executives plead for market stability and his trade war shook confidence in the U.S. economy ... “It may go up higher ... policy at Piper Sandler ... One U.S.

    As Missouri basketball’s confounding run continues, which Tigers will show up in postseason?

    Columbia Daily Tribune 08 Mar 2025
    Watch Mizzou coach Dennis Gates' message to seniors after last home game. Missouri basketball coach Dennis Gates delivered an emotional message to the Tigers' departing seniors after a loss to Kentucky on Saturday at Mizzou Arena ... Josh Gray was second.
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