Earth is an integrated, complex system with strong coupling among atmosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere processes. In recent years, we have witnessed the
complex interplay between these processes and the vulnerability of human society to
disturbances in both the timing and intensity of these regional or global scale processes.
Seismic and volcanic activity, typhoons and torrential rains, and other geological and
environmental hazards have had major impacts on human populations. Many of these …