Full download ebook at ebookstep.

com

Dowload Introdução a Sistemas de Bancos de Dados

C. J. Date

http://ebookstep.com/product/introducao-a-sistemas-de-
bancos-de-dados-c-j-date/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Download more ebook from https://ebookstep.com

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Sistemas De Banco De Dados 7th Edition Ramez Elmasri

Shamkant B Navathe

https://ebookstep.com/product/sistemas-de-banco-de-dados-7th-
edition-ramez-elmasri-shamkant-b-navathe/

Verbinding verbroken 1st Edition J C A De Meij

https://ebookstep.com/product/verbinding-verbroken-1st-edition-j-
c-a-de-meij/

Sistemas de Controle Modernos 11th Edition Richard C

Dorf Robert H Bishop

https://ebookstep.com/product/sistemas-de-controle-modernos-11th-
edition-richard-c-dorf-robert-h-bishop/

MANUAL DE ANÁLISIS DE FRECUENCIAS EN HIDROLOGÍA First

Edition Aparicio J Gomez J Patiño C

https://ebookstep.com/product/manual-de-analisis-de-frecuencias-
en-hidrologia-first-edition-aparicio-j-gomez-j-patino-c/
O Homem de Giz 1st Edition C. J. Tudor

https://ebookstep.com/product/o-homem-de-giz-1st-edition-c-j-
tudor/

A morte de Sarai J A Redmerski

https://ebookstep.com/product/a-morte-de-sarai-j-a-redmerski/

Introducción a la Ingeniería de Sistemas 1st Edition

José Ignacio Quevedo Gómez

https://ebookstep.com/product/introduccion-a-la-ingenieria-de-
sistemas-1st-edition-jose-ignacio-quevedo-gomez/

A Ação no Direito Processual Civil Brasileiro Coleção

Obras de J J Calmon de Passos 1st Edition J J Calmon De
Passos

https://ebookstep.com/product/a-acao-no-direito-processual-civil-
brasileiro-colecao-obras-de-j-j-calmon-de-passos-1st-edition-j-j-
calmon-de-passos/

O retorno de Izabel J A Redmerski

https://ebookstep.com/product/o-retorno-de-izabel-j-a-redmerski/
 C. J. Date

Introdução a Sistemas de
BANCOS DE DADOS
Tradução da 8ª Edição Americana

Tradução
Daniel Vieira

Revisão Técnica
Sergio Lifschitz
Professor do Departamento de Informática da PUC-Rio

25a tiragem
Do original:
An Introduction to Database Systems.
Tradução autorizada do idioma inglês da edição publicada por Addison-Wesley.
Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Todos os direitos reservados.

© 2004, Elsevier Editora Ltda.

Todos os direitos reservados e protegidos pela Lei 9.610 de 19/02/1998. Nenhuma parte
deste livro, sem autorização prévia por escrito da editora, poderá ser reproduzida ou
transmitida sejam quais forem os meios empregados: eletrônicos, mecânicos,
fotográficos, gravação ou quaisquer outros.

Editoração Eletrônica
Estúdio Castellani

Capa
Olga Loureiro

Desenvolvimento de eBook
Loope – design e publicações digitais | www.loope.com.br

Projeto Gráfico
Elsevier Editora Ltda.
Conhecimento sem Fronteiras
Rua Sete de Setembro, 111 – 16º andar
20050-006 – Centro – Rio de Janeiro – RJ – Brasil

Rua Quintana, 753 – 8º andar

04569-011 – Brooklin – São Paulo – SP – Brasil

Serviço de Atendimento ao Cliente

0800-0265340
[email protected]

ISBN 978-85-352-8445-4
Edição original: ISBN 0-321-19784-4

Nota: Muito zelo e técnica foram empregados na edição desta obra. No entanto, podem
ocorrer erros de digitação, impressão ou dúvida conceitual. Em qualquer das hipóteses,
solicitamos a comunicação ao nosso Serviço de Atendimento ao Cliente, para que
possamos esclarecer ou encaminhar a questão.
Nem a editora nem o autor assumem qualquer responsabilidade por eventuais danos ou
perdas a pessoas ou bens, originados do uso desta publicação.

CIP-Brasil. Catalogação na fonte.

Sindicato Nacional dos Editores de Livros, RJ
D257i
Date, C J., 1941–
 Introdução a sistemas de banco de dados / C. J. Date ; tradução de Daniel Vieira.
– Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2003.

Tradução de: Introduction to database systems, 8th ed

ISBN 978-85-352-8445-4
1. Banco de dados. I. Título
03-2708. CDD 005.74
CDU 004.65
Comentários sobre o livro
“O livro de C. J. Date é o marco da teoria relacional e do tratamento matemático
em geral... além de ser o líder disparado na discussão sobre os padrões da SQL.
Ele exerce muito mais zelo pela linguagem cuidadosa e pela importância dos
conceitos e princípios necessários para dominar essa área.”
Carl Eckberg, Universidade Estadual em San Diego

“A 8a Edição é uma apresentação excelente e abrangente da área de banco de

dados contemporâneo. Particularmente, os capítulos onde Date discute sobre
tipos, relações, bancos de dados de objeto e sistemas relacional/objeto oferecem,
em conjunto, uma exposição excepcionalmente clara e autocontida a respeito da
abordagem relacional/objeto dos bancos de dados.”
Martin K. Solomon, Universidade Atlantic da Flórida

“Chris Date é o mais respeitado especialista e pensador sobre tecnologia de

bancos de dados do setor de informática, e seu livro Introdução a Sistemas de
Bancos de Dados continua sendo o trabalho definitivo para todos aqueles que
desejam um manual completo e atualizado sobre sistemas de bancos de dados.”
Colin J. White, Presidente da Intelligent Business Strategies

“Esta é a melhor explicação sobre concorrência que eu já vi na literatura, e inclui

toda a base necessária.”
Bruce O. Larsen, Instituto de Tecnologia Stevens

“Leitura obrigatória e referência indispensável. Nenhum profissional de sistemas

de informações ou de bancos de dados pode abrir mão deste livro.”
Declan Brady, MICS, Arquiteto de sistemas e especialista em bancos de
dados, Fujitsu

“As profundas ideias do autor sobre o assunto, o tratamento informal de tópicos

avançados, as discussões abertas de assuntos críticos, um conteúdo completo e
atualizado e as anotações detalhadas sobre a bibliografia fazem deste livro a obra
mais popular na área de bancos de dados há mais de duas décadas.”
Qiang Zhu, Universidade de Michigan em Dearborn

“O maior atrativo deste livro é a sua abrangência e o fato de ser bastante

atualizado em relação ao desenvolvimento das pesquisas. Esse último fator se
deve principalmente ao envolvimento de Date com essas pesquisas, o que lhe dá
uma oportunidade única para escrever sobre elas.”
David Livingstone, Universidade de Northumbria, Newcastle
Este livro é dedicado a minha esposa Lindy e à memória de
minha mãe, Rene.
Também o dedico à memória de Ted Codd, que,
lamentavelmente, faleceu durante a produção deste livro.
Os que não conseguem se lembrar do passado estão condenados
a repeti-lo.

Normalmente citado da seguinte forma:

Os que não conhecem a história estão condenados a repeti-la.

– George Santayana

Gostaria de ver a ciência de computação sendo ensinada

deliberadamente com uma perspectiva histórica...

Os alunos precisam entender como chegamos à situação atual, o

que foi experimentado, o que funcionou e o que não funcionou,
e também como as melhorias no hardware permitiram o
progresso. A presença desse elemento em seu treinamento faz
com que as pessoas enfrentem cada problema a partir dos
princípios básicos. Elas estão aptas a oferecer soluções que
foram desejadas no passado. Ao invés de apoiar nos ombros de
seus precursores, elas tentam ter êxito sozinhas.
– Maurice V. Wilkes
O Autor

C. J. Date é escritor, conferencista, pesquisador e consultor independente,

especializado em tecnologias de bancos de dados relacionais. Mora em
Healdsburg, Califórnia, Estados Unidos.
Em 1967, após vários anos trabalhando com programação matemática e como
professor de programação na Leo Computers Ltd. (Londres, Inglaterra), Date foi
para os laboratórios de desenvolvimento da IBM no Reino Unido, onde
trabalhou na integração da funcionalidade de bancos de dados em PL/I. Em
1974, transferiu-se para o centro de desenvolvimento de sistemas da IBM na
Califórnia, onde era responsável pelo projeto de uma linguagem de bancos de
dados conhecida como UDL (Unified Database Language – linguagem unificada
de banco de dados), e atuou no planejamento técnico e projeto de componentes
externos para os produtos da IBM SQL/DS e DB2. Ele deixou a IBM em maio
de 1983.
C. J. Date atua no setor de bancos de dados há mais de 30 anos. Foi uma das
primeiras pessoas em todo o mundo a reconhecer o significado do trabalho
pioneiro de Codd sobre o modelo relacional. Ele realiza muitas conferências
sobre assuntos técnicos – principalmente tópicos a respeito de bancos de dados
e, em especial, bancos de dados relacionais – em toda a América do Norte e
também na Europa, Austrália, América Latina e Extremo Oriente. Além deste
livro, Date é autor e coautor de vários outros livros sobre bancos de dados,
inclusive Temporal Data and the Relational Model (2003, Morgan Kaufmann)
e, pela Addison-Wesley: Foundation for Future Database Systems: The Third
Manifesto (2a edição, 2000), uma proposta detalhada para a orientação futura
nessa área; Database: A Primer (1983), que trata de sistemas de bancos de
dados sob o ponto de vista do não especialista; uma série de livros intitulada
Relational Database Writings (1986, 1990, 1992, 1995, 1998), que trata em
profundidade de vários aspectos da tecnologia relacional; e outra série de livros
sobre sistemas e linguagens específicas – A Guide to DB2 (4a edição, 1993), A
Guide to SYBASE and SQL Server (1992), A Guide to SQL/DS (1998), A
Guide to INGRES (1987) e A Guide to the SQL Standard (4a edição, 1997).
Seus livros foram traduzidos para vários idiomas, inclusive alemão, braile,
chinês, coreano, espanhol, francês, grego, holandês, italiano, japonês, polonês,
português e russo.
C. J. Date também publicou mais de 300 artigos técnicos e trabalhos de
pesquisa, e fez várias contribuições originais para a teoria de bancos de dados.
Há vários anos, é colunista regular da revista Database Programming & Design.
Também é colaborador regular do Web site http://dbdebunk.com. Seus
seminários profissionais sobre tecnologia de bancos de dados (oferecidos tanto
na América do Norte quanto em outros continentes) são considerados altamente
originais pela qualidade do material e pela clareza com que expõe o assunto.
Date possui o título de professor honorário de matemática da Universidade de
Cambridge, Inglaterra (BA em 1962, MA em 1966) e o título honorário de
doutor em tecnologia da Universidade de De Montfort, Inglaterra (1994).
Sumário

Capa
Folha de rosto
Copyright
Comentários sobre o livro
Dedicatórias
Epígrafe
O Autor
Sumário
Prefácio à oitava edição
__________________________

PARTE I CONCEITOS BÁSICOS

CAPÍTULO 1 Visão geral do gerenciamento de bancos de dados

1.1 Introdução
1.2 O que é um sistema de banco de dados?
1.3 O que é um banco de dados?
1.4 Por que banco de dados?
1.5 Independência de dados
1.6 Sistemas relacionais e outros sistemas
1.7 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências E Bibliografia

CAPÍTULO 2 Arquitetura de sistemas de bancos de dados

2.1 Introdução
2.2 Os três níveis da arquitetura
2.3 O nível externo
 2.4 O nível conceitual
2.5 O nível interno
2.6 Mapeamentos
2.7 O administrador do banco de dados
2.8 O sistema de gerenciamento de bancos de dados
2.9 Comunicações de dados
2.10 Arquitetura cliente/servidor
2.11 Utilitários
2.12 Processamento distribuído
2.13 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia

CAPÍTULO 3 Introdução aos bancos de dados relacionais

3.1 Introdução
3.2 Uma olhada informal do modelo relacional
3.3 Relações e relvars
3.4 O que significam as relações
3.5 Otimização
3.6 O catálogo
3.7 RelVars básicas e visões
3.8 Transações
3.9 O banco de dados de fornecedores e peças
3.10 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
CAPÍTULO 4 Uma introdução à SQL
4.1 Introdução
4.2 Visão geral
4.3 O catálogo
4.4 Visões
4.5 Transações
4.6 SQL embutida
4.7 SQL dinâmica e SQL/CLI
4.8 A SQL não é perfeita
4.9 Resumo
Exercícios
 Referências e bibliografia
__________________________

PARTE II – O MODELO RELACIONAL

CAPÍTULO 5 Tipos
5.1 Introdução
5.2 Valores versus variáveis
5.3 Tipos versus representações
5.4 Definição de tipo
5.5 Operadores
5.6 Geradores de tipos
5.7 Recursos de SQL
5.8 Resumo
Exercícios
Referência e bibliografia

CAPÍTULO 6 Relações
6.1 Introdução
6.2 Tuplas
6.3 Tipos de relações
6.4 Valores de relações
6.5 Variáveis de relação
6.6 Recursos de SQL
6.7 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
CAPÍTULO 7 Álgebra relacional
7.1 Introdução
7.2 Revendo o fechamento
7.3 A álgebra original: sintaxe
7.4 A álgebra original: semântica
7.5 Exemplos
7.6 Para que serve a álgebra?
7.7 Pontos avançados
7.8 Operadores adicionais
7.9 Agrupamento e desagrupamento
 7.10 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia

CAPÍTULO 8 Cálculo relacional

8.1 Introdução
8.2 Cálculo de tuplas
8.3 Exemplos
8.4 Cálculo versus álgebra
8.5 Capacidades computacionais
8.6 Recursos de SQL
8.7 Cálculo de domínios
8.8 Query-by-example
8.9 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
CAPÍTULO 9 Integridade
9.1 Introdução
9.2 Olhando mais de perto
9.3 Predicados e proposições
9.4 Predicados de relvar e predicados de banco de dados
9.5 Verificando as restrições
9.6 Predicados internos e externos
9.7 Correção e consistência
9.8 Integridade e visões
9.9 Esquema de classificação de restrições
9.10 Chaves
9.11 Triggers (um desvio)
9.12 Recursos de SQL
9.13 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
CAPÍTULO 10 Visões
10.1 Introdução
10.2 Para que servem as visões?
10.3 Busca em visões
 10.4 Atualizações de visões
10.5 Snapshots (um desvio)
10.6 Recursos de SQL
10.7 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
__________________________

PARTE III – PROJETO DE BANCOS DE DADOS

CAPÍTULO 11 Dependências funcionais

11.1 Introdução
11.2 Definições básicas
11.3 Dependências triviais e não triviais
11.4 Fecho de um conjunto de dependências
11.5 Fecho de um conjunto de atributos
11.6 Conjuntos irredutíveis de dependências
11.7 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
CAPÍTULO 12 Normalização avançada I: 1FN, 2FN, 3FN, FNBC
12.1 Introdução
12.2 Decomposição sem perdas e dependências funcionais
12.3 Primeira, segunda e terceira formas normais
12.4 Preservação de dependências
12.5 Forma normal de boyce/codd (fnbc)
12.6 Uma observação sobre atributos com relação como valor
12.7 Resumo
Exercícios
Referências e bibliografia
CAPÍTULO 13 Normalização avançada II: formas normais maiores
13.1 Introdução
13.2 Dependências multivaloradas e quarta forma normal
13.3 Dependências de junção e quinta forma normal
13.4 O procedimento de normalização em resumo
13.5 Uma observação sobre desnormalização
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Adam they would have seen the kingdom of heaven”. Ibn Umar
reports that the Prophet was once asked as to where God is found
either on earth or in heaven. “He is in the hearts of his faithful
servants”, replied the Prophet.
It will not be out of place to throw some light here on the
following terms which are often vaguely applied while dealing with
the question of human nature.
1. Qalb (heart) has two meanings. (a) a conical shaped piece of
flesh on the left side of the chest, circulating blood, the source of
animal spirits. It is found in all animals. The heart thus belongs to
the external world and can be seen with the material eyes. (b) A
mysterious divine substance which is related to the material heart
like the relation between the dweller and the house or the artisan
and his implements. It alone is sentient and responsible.
2. Ruh (spirit) means (a) a vapoury substance which, issues from
the material heart, and quickens every part of the body. It is like a
lamp which is placed in a house and sheds its light on all sides. (b)
The soul which is expressed in the Quran as ‘divine
commandment’[17] and is used in the same sense as the second
meaning of Qalb, mentioned above.
3. Nafs (self) which means (a) the substratum for appetite and
passion. The Sufis call it the embodiment of vices. (b) The ego
which receives different names in accordance with the qualities
acquired from changes in its conditions. When in subjugating
passions it acquires mastery over them and feels undisturbed, it is
called the peaceful self (Nafsi mutmainna). The Quran says: “Nafs
that art at rest. Return to thy Lord well pleased with Him, well
pleasing.” When it upbraids man for his actions it is called conscience
(Nafsi lauwama). When it freely indulges in the gratification of his
passions, it is called the inordinate self (Nafsi ammara).
 HUMAN FREEDOM AND
RESPONSIBILITY[18]
Actions are either voluntary or involuntary. The difference between
them is not of kind but of degree. Analyse the process of an
involuntary action and you will find that if, for example, a man
intends to thrust a needle in your eye or draws a sword to strike on
your head, your eye in the former case will at once close and in the
latter your hand will suddenly be raised up to shield your head. This
prompt action on the part of your eye and hand is due to your
consciousness of the evil to be evaded, and this gives rise to volition
which moves the eye and the hand without the least delay. There
are, however, cases the desirability or rejection of which needs
meditation, but the moment mind decides, the decision is carried out
as promptly as in the above example. This meditation translated into
choice or rejection constitutes will. Now will makes its choice
between two alternatives and takes its cue either from imagination
or reason. For example, a man may be unable to cut his own throat,
not because his hand is weak or a knife is not available, but because
will is lacking which would give the stimulus to suicide. For man
loves his own life. But suppose he gets tired of his life, owing to
having harrowing pains and unbearable mental sufferings. He has
now to choose between two alternatives which are both undesirable.
A struggle commences and he hangs between life and death. If he
thinks that death which will put an end to his sufferings quickly is
preferable to life with its lingering intolerable pains, he will choose
death although he loves his life. This choice gives rise to will, the
command to which, communicated through proper channels, would
then be faithfully executed by his hand in the manner of suicide.
Thus, though the process from the commencement of mental
struggle for the choice between too alternatives down to the
stimulus to physical action is uniformly determinate there is at any
rate a sort of freedom traceable in the will.
Man holds the balance between determinism and freedom. The
uniform succession of events is on the lines of determination but his
choice which is an essential element of will is his own. Our Ulamas
have therefore coined a separate phrase: Kasb (acquisition),
distinguishing it from Jabr (necessity) and Ikhtiyar (freedom) They
say that fire burns of necessity (Jabr) but man may acquire fire
through the appropriate methods, while in Almighty God is the
ultimate cause of fire (Ikhtiyar). But it must be noted that when we
use the word Ikhtiyar for God, we must exclude the notion of choice,
which is an essential element of will in man. Let it be here
recognised once for all as a general principle that all the words of
man’s vocabulary when used for God’s attributes are similarly
metaphorical.[19]
The question may be asked: If God is the ultimate cause why
should there be a causal connection in the orderly succession of
events? The answer to this lies in the correct understanding of the
nature of causation. Nothing causes anything. Antecedents have
consequents.[20] God alone is the efficient cause, but the ignorant
have misunderstood and misapplied the word power. As to the
orderly succession of events, let it be understood that the two
events are conjoined like the relation between the condition and the
conditioned. Now certain conditions are very apparent and can be
known easily by people of little understanding, but there are
conditions which are understood only by those who see through the
light of intuition: hence the common error of miscalculating the
uniformity of events. There is a divine purpose linking the
antecedents to the consequents and manifesting itself in the existing
orderly succession of events, without the least break or irregularity.
“Verily”, says the Quran. “We did not create the heavens and the
earth and what is between them in sport. We did not create them
both but with truth, but most of them do not know”.[21]
 Surely, there is a set purpose pervading the universe. The uniform
succession of events is not at random. There is no such thing as
chance. Here again it may be asked: If God is the efficient cause,
how will you account for actions attributed to man in the scriptures?
Are we to believe that there are two causes for one effect? My
answer to this will be that the word cause is vaguely understood. It
can be used in two different senses. Just as we say that the death of
A was caused by (1) B. the executioner, and (2) C the king’s order.
Both these statements are correct. Similarly God is the cause of
actions as He has creative power and efficiency. At the same time
man is the cause of actions as he is the source of the manifestation
of uniform succession of events. In the former case we have a real
causal connection, while in the latter a relation of the antecedent to
the consequent after the manner of the connection between the
condition and the conditioned. There are passages in the Quran
where the word cause is used in different senses.
“The angel of death who is given charge of you shall cause you to
die: then to your Lord you shall be brought back”.[22] “Allah takes
the souls at the time of their death”.[23]
“Have you considered what you sow?”[24] “We pour down the
water, pouring it down in abundance. Then we cleave the earth;
cleaving it asunder. Then we cause to grow therein the grain”.[25]
“Fight them: Allah will chastise them by your hands and bring
them to disgrace”.[26] “So you did not slay them, but it was Allah
who slew them, and thou didst not smite when thou didst smite, but
it was Allah who smote, that he might confer upon the believers a
good gift from himself”.[27]
These passages show that the word, cause, signifies creative
power, and must be applied to God alone. But as man’s power is the
image of God’s power the word was applied to him figuratively. Yet,
just as the death of a culprit is caused by the actual killing by the
hand of the executioner and not the king’s order, so the word cause
actually applied to man is contrary to fact. God alone is the real
efficient cause, and the word must be applied to him in its root
sense of power.
It may be asked then, why man should be rewarded for his good
actions and punished for his misdeeds. Let us consider first the
nature of reward and punishment. Experience tells us that things
have natural properties and that physical laws operate in a uniform
manner. Take, for example, the science of medicine. Certain drugs
are found to possess certain qualities. If a man swallows poison of
his own accord he has no right to ask why poison kills him. Its
natural property has simply operated in his system and caused his
death. Similarly actions make an impression on mind. Good and bad
actions are invariably followed by pleasure and pain respectively. A
good action is its own reward of pleasure and a bad one of pain. The
former works like an elixir; the latter like poison. The properties of
actions have been discovered, like discoveries in medicine, but by
the physicians of the heart, the saints and the prophets. If you will
not listen to them you must suffer the consequence. Now hear a
parable:
A certain king sent a horse, a robe of honour, and travelling
expenses to one of his suzerains in a distant land. Although the king
had no need of his services, the royal gift was a favour shown to his
suzerain, so that he might come to the king’s court and be happy in
his presence. If the suzerain understands the king’s intention from
the nature of the gift and utilizes it properly with a grateful heart, he
will wait on the king and live happily, but if he misuses the gift or
takes no heed of it, he will prove an ungrateful wretch.
It is thus that the boundless mercy of the omnipotent and
omniscient God bestowed on us the gift of life, providing us with
bodily organs, mental and moral faculties, so that we uplift ourselves
by utilizing them properly, and be worthy of being admitted into his
holy presence. If we misuse them or pay no regard to them, surely
we shall be (Kafirs) (literally “ungrateful”) for his blessings bestowed
on us for our good, and thus be doomed.
 “Verily,” says the Quran, “we created man in the best make. Then
we render him the lowest of the low. Except those who believe and
do good, so they shall have a reward never to be cut off”.[28].[29].

The Allegory of the Pen

A certain devotee who was on the way to illumination saw a piece
of paper with lines written on it. “Why”, said the devotee, “hast thou
blackened thy bright face?” “It is not fair to take me to task”, replied
the paper, “I have done nothing. Ask the ink why she has sallied
forth from the inkstand where she was quite at ease, and forcibly
blackened my face”. “You are right” said the devotee. Then he
turned to the ink and enquired of her. “Why do you ask me”, she
said, “I was sitting still in the inkstand and had no mind to come out
but this truculent pen rushed at me, drew me out and scattered me
over the page. There you see me lying helpless, go to the pen and
ask him”. The devotee turned to the pen and interrogated him about
his high-handedness. “Why do you trouble me”, answered the pen,
“Look, what am I? an insignificant reed. I was growing by the banks
of silvery streams amidst shady green trees, when lo: a hand
stretched at me. It held a knife, which uprooted me, flayed me and
separated my joints, hewed me, cleaved my head then, chopped it
off. I was sent headlong towards the ink, and have to serve abjectly.
Do not add insult to my injuries, go to the hand and ask him”. The
devotee looked at the hand and said: “Is it true? Are you so cruel?”
“Do not be angry, Sir” replied the hand “I am a bundle of flesh,
bones, and blood. Have you ever seen a piece of flesh exerting
power? Can a body move of itself? I am a vehicle used by one called
vitality. He rides on me and forces me round and round. You see, a
dead man has hands but cannot use them because vitality has left
them. Why should I, a mere vehicle, be blamed? Go to vitality and
ask him why he makes use of me.” “You are right”, said the devotee,
and then questioned vitality. “Do not find fault with me”, answered
vitality, “Many a time a censurer himself is reproved, while the
censured is found faultless. How do you know that I have forced the
hand? I was already there before he moved, and had no idea of the
motion. I was unconscious and the on-lookers were also unaware of
me. Suddenly an agent came and stirred me. I had neither strength
enough to disobey nor willingness to obey him. That for which you
would take me to task I had to do according to his wish, I do not
know who this agent is. He is called will and I know him by name
only. Had the matter been left to me I think I should have done
nothing.” “All right”, continued the devotee, “I shall put the question
to will, and ask him why he has forcibly employed vitality which of its
own accord would have done nothing”. “Do not be in too great a
hurry”, exclaimed will, “perchance I may give you sufficient reason.
His majesty, the mind, sent an ambassador, named knowledge, who
delivered his message to me through reason, saying: ‘Rise up, stir
vitality’. I was forced to do so, because I have to obey knowledge
and reason, but I know not why. As long as I receive no order I am
happy, but the moment an order is delivered I dare not disobey.
Whether my monarch be a just ruler or a tyrant, I must obey him.
On my oath, as long as the king hesitates or ponders over the
matter I stand quiet, ready to serve, but the moment his order is
passed my sense of obedience which is innate forces me to stir up
vitality. So, you should not blame me. Go to knowledge and get
information there”. “You are right,” consented the devotee, and
proceeding, asked mind and its ambassador, knowledge and reason,
for an explanation. Reason excused himself by saying he was a lamp
only, but knew not who had lighted it. Mind pleaded his innocence
by calling himself a mere tabula rasa. Knowledge maintained that it
was simply an inscription on the tabula rasa, inscribed after the lamp
of reason had been lighted. Thus he could not be considered the
author of the inscription which may have been the work of some
invisible pen. The devotee was puzzled by the reply, but collecting
himself, he spoke thus to knowledge: “I am wandering in the path of
my enquiry. To whomsoever I go and ask the reason I am referred
to another. Nevertheless, there is pleasure in my quest, for I find
that everyone gives me a plausible reason. But pardon me, Sir if I
say that your reply, knowledge, fails to satisfy me. You say that you
are a mere inscription recorded by a pen. I have seen pen, ink, and
tablet. They are of reed, a black mixture, and of wood and iron,
respectively. And I have seen lamps lighted with fire. But here I do
not see any of these things, and yet you talk of the tablet, the lamp,
the pen and the inscription. Surely you are not trifling with me?”
“Certainly not”, returned knowledge, “I spoke in right earnest. But I
see your difficulty. Your means are scanty, your horse is jaded, and
your journey is long and dangerous. Give up this enterprise, as I fear
you cannot succeed. If, however you are prepared to run the risk,
then listen. Your journey extends through three regions. The first is
the terrestrial world. Its objects pen, ink, paper, hand etc. are just
what you have seen them to be. The second is the celestial world,
which will begin when you have left me behind. There you will come
across dense forests, deep wide rivers and high impassable
mountains and I know not how you would be able to proceed.
Between these two worlds there is a third intermediary region called
the phenomenal world. You have crossed three stages of it, vitality,
will, and knowledge. To use a simile: a man who is walking is
treading the terrestrial world: if he is sailing in a boat he enters the
phenomenal world: if he leaves the boat and swims and walks on
the waters, he is admitted in the celestial world. If you do not know
how to swim, go back. For, the watery region of the celestial world
begins now when you can see that pen inscribing on the tablet of
the heart. If you are not of whom it was said: ‘O ye of little faith,
wherefore didst thou doubt?’[30] prepare thyself. For, by faith you
shall not simply walk on the sea but fly in the air”. The wondering
devotee stood speechless for awhile, then turning to knowledge,
began: “I am in a difficulty. The dangers of the path which you have
described unnerve my heart, and I know not whether I have
sufficient strength to face them and to succeed in the end”. “There is
a test for your strength”, replied knowledge, “Open your eyes and fix
your gaze on me. If you see the pen which writes on the heart, you
will in my opinion, be able to proceed further on. For he who crosses
the phenomenal world, knocks at the door of the celestial world,
then sights the pen which writes on hearts”. The devotee did as he
was advised, but failed to see that pen, because his notion of pen
was no other but of a pen of reed or wood. Then knowledge drew
his attention, saying: “There’s the rub. Do you not know that the
furniture of a palace indicates the status of its lord? Nothing in the
universe resembles God,[31] therefore his attributes are also
transcendental. He is neither body nor is in space. His hand is not a
bundle of flesh, bone, and blood. His pen is not of reed or wood. His
writing is not from ink prepared from vitriol and gall. But there are
many who ignorantly cling to an anthropomorphic view of Him, there
are few who cherish a transcendentally pure conception of Him, and
believe that He is not only above all material limitation but even
above the limitation of metaphor. You seem to be oscillating between
these two views, because on the one hand you think that God is
immaterial, that His words have neither sound nor shape; on the
other hand you cannot rise to the transcendental conception of His
hand, pen and tablet. Do you think that the meaning of the tradition
“Verily God created Adam in His own image”[32] is limited to the
visible face of man? Certainly not: it is the inward nature of man
seen by the inward sight which can be called the image of God. But
listen: You are now at the sacred mount, where the invisible voice
from the burning bush speaks: “I am that I am;”[33] “Verily I am thy
Lord God, put off thy shoes”.[34] The devotee, who listening with
rapture, suddenly saw as it were a flash of lightning, there appeared
working the pen which writes on hearts-formless. “A thousand
blessings on thee, O knowledge, who hast saved me from falling into
the abysm of anthropomorphism (Tashbih). I thank thee from the
bottom of my heart. I tarried long, but now, adieu”.
The devotee then resumed his journey. Halting in the presence of
the invisible pen, politely he asked the same question. “You know
my reply” answered the mysterious pen, “You cannot have forgotten
the reply given to you by the pen in the terrestrial world”. “Yes, I
remember,” replied the devotee, “but how can it be the same reply,
because there is no similitude between you and that pen”. “Then it
seems you have forgotten the tradition: Verily God created Adam in
his own image”. “No, Sir”, interrupted the devotee, “I know it by
heart”. “And you have forgotten also that passage in the Quran: “And
the heavens rolled up in his right hand.”[35] “Certainly not”,
exclaimed the devotee, “I can repeat the whole of the Quran by
rote”. “Yes, I know, and as you are now treading the sacred
precincts of the celestial world I think I can now safely tell you that
you have simply learnt the meaning of these passages from a
negative point of view. But they have a positive value, and should be
utilised as constructive at this stage.[36] Proceed further and you will
understand what I mean”. The devotee looked and found himself
reflecting upon the divine attribute omnipotence. At once he realised
the force of the mysterious pen’s argument, but goaded by his
inquisitive nature he was about to put the question to the holy
being, when a voice like the deafening sound of thunder was heard
from above, proclaiming: “He is not questioned for his actions but
they shall be asked”. Filled with surprize; the devotee bent his head
in silent submission.
The hand of the divine mercy stretched towards the helpless
devotee; into his ear were whispered in zephyr tones: “Verily those
who strive in our way we will certainly show them the path which
leads to us”[37]. Opening his eyes, the devotee raised his head and
poured forth his heart in silent prayer. “Holy art thou, O God
Almighty: blessed is thy name O Lord of the universe. Henceforth I
shall fear no mortal: I put my entire trust in thee: thy forgiveness is
my solace: thy mercy is my refuge.”
(Light may be thrown on the matter by consideration of the unity
of God.[38])
 PRIDE AND VANITY[39]
When a man feels a superiority over others and with this a sort of
inward elation, this is called pride. It differs from vanity in as much
as vanity means consciousness of one’s elation while pride requires a
subject, an object and a feeling of elation. Suppose a man is born
solitary in the world, he may be vain but not proud, because in pride
man considers himself superior to others for certain qualities of his
self. He allots one position to his self and one to another, and then
thinks that his position is higher and is therefore elated. This “puffed
up” feeling which imparts a sense of “touch me not” is called pride.
The Prophet says: “O God save me from the puffing up of pride”. Ibn
Abbas says that the sentence in the Quran “And they have pride in
their hearts and will fail to reach it” means that the thought of
inward greatness will be denied to them. This thought is the source
of inward and outward actions, which are so to speak the fruits of it.
A proud man will not tolerate any other to be on equal terms with
himself. In private and in public he expects that all should assume a
respectful attitude towards him and acknowledging his superiority
treat him as a higher being. They should greet him first, make way
for him wherever he walks; when he speaks everyone should listen
to him and never try to oppose him. He is a genius and people are
like asses. They should be grateful to him seeing that he is so
condescending. Such proud men are found especially among
ulamas. Sages are ruined by their pride. The Prophet says: “He who
has an atom of pride in his heart will fail to enter paradise.” This
saying requires explanation, and should be carefully listened to.
Virtues are the doors of Paradise, but pride and self esteem lock
them all. So long as man feels elated he will not like for others what
he likes for himself. His self esteem will deprive him of humility,
which is the essence of righteousness. He will neither be able to
discard enmity and envy, resentment and wrath, slander and scorn,
nor will he be able to cultivate truth and sincerity, and calmly listen
to any advice. In short, there is no evil which a proud man will not
inevitably do in order to preserve his elation and self-esteem. Vices
are like a chain of rings linked together which entangle his heart.
Therefore, an atom of pride is Satan’s spark, which secretly
consumes the nature of the sons of Adam.
Know then that pride is of three kinds: 1. Against God; 2. Against
prophets and saints; 3. Against fellowmen.
1. Against God. It is due to mere foolishness when a biped
creature considers himself as if Lord of the universe. Namrud and
Pharoah were such types, who disdained to be called God’s creatures
on earth: “Verily, Verily,” says the Quran, “the Messiah does by no
means disdain that he should be a servant of Allah, nor do the
angels who are near to Him, and whoever disdains His service and is
proud He will gather them all together to Himself.”[40]
2. Against prophets and saints. It is due to unwarranted self
esteem when one considers obedience to any mortal being as
lowering his own position. Such a person either fails to reflect on the
nature of prophetship and thereby feels proud of himself and does
not obey the prophet, or refuses to consider the claims of
prophetship as being derogatory to his elated self and therefore pays
no regard to the prophet. The Quran quotes the words of such
persons:—“And they say: what is the matter with this Apostle that he
eats food and goes about in the markets, why has not an angel been
sent down to him so that he should have been a warner with him.
Or (why is not) a treasure sent down to him or he is made to have a
garden from which he should eat”. And those who do not fear our
meeting, say: “Why have not angels been sent down to us, or (why)
do we not see our Lord? Now certainly they are too proud of
themselves and have revolted in great revolt.”[41]
Our Prophet Mohammed was an orphan and had scanty means of
livelihood, so the Koraishite chief Walid bin Moghera and Abu
Masood Sakfi used to speak contemptuously of him.[42] And when
people believed in him and accepted Islam, the proud Koraishites
used to say: Mohammed is surrounded by poor men, let him send
them off and then we of the aristocracy of Mecca will listen to him.
But God spoke to Mohammed “And withhold thyself with those who
call on their Lord morning and evening, desiring His good will, and
let not their eyes pass from them, desiring the beauties of this
world’s life, and do not follow him, whose heart we have made
unmindful to our resemblance, and he follows his low desires, and
his case is one in which due bounds are exceeded.”[43]
3. Against fellowmen. A proud man considers himself a superior
being and would like to see everybody humbled before him. He is
therefore quarrelling with God, trying to share with Him His attribute
omnipotence. God is spoken of in the Hadith, as saying:
“Omnipotence is my mantle, he who quarrels with me for it, him will
I crush”. Surely men are all His servants and no servant has a right
to treat his fellow servants as their master. But a proud man in the
intoxication of his elation takes himself as God on earth. He is too
haughty to listen to truth from the lips of any of his fellowmen. Ibn
Masud says: “It is enough for sin if a person, who is advised to fear
God answers his advisor: Look to thine own self.”
The consciousness of superiority which begets pride is due to
certain attributes or accomplishments which can be summed up as:
a. Spiritual, divided into (1) knowledge; (2) devotion.
b. Worldly, of five kinds: (3) pedigree; (4) beauty; (5)
strength; (6) wealth; (7) kith and kin.
There are thus seven causes in all, and these need some
description.
Knowledge is power. Consciousness of power easily elates a man,
who considers himself superior to others and treats them in a
supercilious manner. If he accepts the greetings or the invitation of
his fellowmen or receives them in audience he thinks they should be
thankful to him for his condescension. People should obey and serve
him, for by virtue of his knowledge he thinks he has a right over
them. Such a proud “Alim” is sorry for the sins of others but
unmindful of his own condition. While he freely distributes Heaven
and Hell among his fellowmen, he claims salvation and Heaven for
himself. The question is whether he is really justified in holding the
title of Alim. For an Alim is one who, knowing himself knows God,
who fears the Lord most, who holds himself more responsible for his
actions for he knows good and evil and feels the awful presence of a
mighty and just Being who looks to righteousness alone.
Let us consider why men of knowledge become proud. There are
two main causes which should be noted. First there is a false
conception about the nature of real knowledge. Devoted to certain
sciences and arts such as mathematics, physics, literature, and
dialectics, they think that proficiency in them makes a man perfect.
But real knowledge means the lifting of the veil from before the eyes
of the heart so as to see the mysterious relation between man and
his maker and to be filled with a sense of awe and reverence in the
presence of an omniscient holy Being who pervades the universe.
This attitude of mind, this enlightenment is real knowledge. It
produces humility and repels pride.
Secondly, there is an indifference to moral training during student
life. Wicked habits thus produce bitter fruits of pride. Wahb has well
illustrated this point, when he says: “Knowledge is like rain falling
from above, so pure and sweet but the plants when they absorb it,
embitter or sweeten it, according to their tastes. Man in acquiring
knowledge acquires power, which gives strength to the hidden
qualities of his heart. If he was prone towards pride and paid no
attention to the subjugation of it, he would prove more proud when
he acquires knowledge.” “There will be men,” says the Prophet “who
will have the Quran on their lips but it will not go down their throats.
They will claim knowledge of it, calling themselves learned Qari.
They will be from among you my companions, but woe to them, for
they will see the consequence of it in Hell”.[44]
Warned by their Prophet, his companions lived a life of humility
and their example taught its lesson to their successors. A person
came to Khalif Omar after morning prayers and said: “I should like
to give public sermons”. “My friend”, said the Khalif, “I am afraid you
would soon be puffed up with pride”. Huzaifa, the companion of the
Prophet, was a leader of prayer. One day he said to his
congregation: “Brethren, have another leader, or go and pray alone,
for I begin to feel puffed up with your leadership”.
Thus, the companions of the Prophet lived meekly, the humble
servants of God on earth, keenly watching the changing phases of
their Hearts and promptly seeking the remedy. But we who call
ourselves their followers not only do not try to purify our hearts but
do not even think it worth while to consider the means for their
purification. How can we expect salvation? But we ought not to lose
heart. The apostle of mercy for the worlds (Rahmet ul lilalamin) has
said: “Soon a time will come when if any person will do even one
tenth of what you are doing now, he will have his salvation”.[45]
Devotion and religious service elicit admiration and praise for the
devotee, who finding himself respected by the people is elated. This
elation quietly develops into pride and then the devotee considers
himself a superior being and favoured of God. He despises his fellow
men and calls them sinners, who will be doomed for ever. But he
does know that he himself will be doomed for despising his
fellowmen and thinking too much of himself. The Prophet says:
“When you hear any person, saying: ‘Woe to the people they are
doomed,’ know that he himself will be doomed first”.
It is recorded that a certain sinner among the Jews passed by a
well known Pharisee. Struck with the appearance of the Pharisee’s
piety and devotion, the poor sinner sat down by him, believing in the
saving grace of his holy touch. But the proud Pharisee disdainfully
spoke out: “Touch me not thou filthy sinner, and leave my presence”.
Whereupon God sent His word to the prophet of that age: “Go and
tell that sinner; thou art forgiven. As for that Pharisee, his devotion
is cast aside and he is doomed”.
3. People are usually proud of their lineage, and look down on
men of low birth. They refuse to treat them on equal terms, and
boastfully speak of their ancestors in the presence of men, who are
treated by them in a haughty manner. This evil lurks even in the
hearts of good and virtuous men, although their manners and
actions throw a veil over it. But in an unguarded moment of
excitement and fury, this demon of pedigree is let loose from the
innermost corner of the heart.
The Prophet’s companion Abuzar says: “I was quarrelling with
someone in the presence of the Prophet when suddenly in a fit of
rage I abused the man; Thou son of a negress!” On this the Prophet
coaxingly said to me: “Abuzar, both the scales are equal. The white
has no preference over the black.” Hearing this I fell and said to the
person: “Brother come and trample on my face and then forgive
me.”
It is reported in the Hadith that two men were quarrelling before
the Prophet. One said to the other; “I am the son of such and such
illustrious man, tell me who thy father is?” The Prophet, addressing
the boastful man said; “There were two men in the time of Moses
who boastfully spoke of their pedigree. One said to the other: “Look
how my nine ancestors all in one line were men of renown.” And
God said to Moses: “Tell this man: All thy nine ancestors are in Hell
and thou art the tenth.”
4. Women generally feel proud of their beauty. This leads to
finding fault with others, and this gradually assumes the form of
contempt and disdain. Ayesha, the wife of the Prophet, says: “One
day a woman came to the Prophet and I said to him: ‘Look at this
dwarf.’ The Prophet turned towards me and said: ‘Ayesha, repent of
what thou hast said, for it is slander.’”
5, 6, 7. People feel a sort of elation at the sight of their
possessions. A merchant is elated with his stores, a landowner with
his fields and groves, and a nobleman with his retinue and riches. In
short, every person feels proud of his worldly possessions and looks
down on those who are lacking in them. He believes in riches and
worships mammon.[46] He has no idea of what is meant by:
“Blessed are the poor in spirit: for their’s is the kingdom of Heaven”.
[47]

We may quote a parable from the Quran. “And set forth to them a
parable of two men. For one of them we made two gardens of grape
vines, and we surrounded them both with palms, and in the midst of
them we made corn-fields. Both these gardens yielded their fruits
and failed nothing. We caused a river to gush forth in their midst.
The man possessed much wealth and he said to his companion while
he disputed with him: I have greater wealth than you and am
mightier in followers. While he entered his garden he was unjust to
himself. He said: I do not think that this will ever perish. I do not
think the hour will come, yet even if I return to my Lord I shall most
certainly find a place better than this. His companion said to him,
while disputing with him: Do you disbelieve in Him who created you
from dust, then from a small germ life, then he made you a perfect
man? But as for me, Allah is my Lord and I do not associate any one
with my Lord. When you entered your garden, why did you not say:
It is as Allah has pleased. There is no power save Allah. If you
consider me to be inferior to you in wealth and children, perhaps my
Lord will give me something better than your garden, and send on it
a reckoning from heaven, so that it shall become even ground with
no living plant. Or the waters may sink into the ground so that you
are unable to find them. His wealth was indeed destroyed, and he
began to wring his hands for what he had spent on it. While it lay
there (for it had fallen down from the roofs) he said: Ah me! would
that I had not associated anyone with my Lord. He had none to help
him besides Allah nor could he defend himself. In Allah, alone is
protection, the True One. In the bestowal of reward and in requital
he is best.
Set forth to them also the parable of the life in this world. It is like
the water which we send down from the clouds on account of which
the herbs become luxuriant. Then these become dry, break into
pieces and the winds scatter them. Allah holds power over all things.
Wealth and children are an adornment of the life of this world. The
good works, the ever-abiding, are with your Lord better in reward
than in expectation”.[48]
How fleeting are our worldly gains, and how foolish are we in
feeling proud of them! Let us then, live as meek and humble
servants of God on earth.
 FRIENDSHIP AND SINCERITY[49]
Friendship is one of God’s favours, says the Quran. And hold fast
by the covenant of Allah all together and be not disunited, and
remember the favour of Allah on you when you were enemies, then
He united your marts so by His favour you became brethren[50]. The
Prophet says: Those amongst you are my close companions who
have good dispositions, are affectionate and tenderly love each
other. And again: “God when He shows His kindness towards any
person gives him a Good friend.”[51] “Verily God will say on the day
of resurrection where are those who loved each other for my sake;
today they shall rest under my shelter when there is no other
shelter.”[52]
“Seven kinds of men will, on the Day of Judgment, rest under His
shelter when there will be no other shelter:—(1) A just Imam, (2) An
adult who is devoted to God, (3) A man who after coming out from
the mosque finds his heart attached to it till he enters again, (4) Two
friends who lived and died in their friendship for God’s sake, (5) He
who for fear of the Lord wept in secret, (6) He whom a beautiful
woman of good birth allures but he replies: I have fear of my Lord,
(7) He who gives alms in a manner that his left hand does not know
what is given by his right hand.”[53]
Friendship, then, is God’s favour and should be cultivated for His
sake. But if we shun the company of our fellowmen let it also be for
God’s sake. “The strongest rope of Faith”, says the Prophet, “is love
and hate both for God’s sake.”
Christ says, “Love God by avoiding the wicked; seek His nearness
by shunning their company and please Him by courting their
displeasure.” “With whom should we keep company, O Word of God”,
asked the people. And Christ replied, “Sit with those whose
appearance reminds you of God, whose words add to the stock of
your knowledge and whose actions serve as an incentive for
acquiring the kingdom of Heaven.”
God spoke to Moses saying, “Son of Amran be up and find out a
friend for thee and he who would not be with thee for my good will
is thy enemy.”
Choose a friend who has five qualities viz: wisdom, good
disposition, abstinence from sin, heresy and greed.
A fool’s company gives no good, it ends in gloom. Good disposition
is necessary in as much as a man may be wise but be subservient to
his inordinate passion and hence unfit for company. And a sinner
and a heretic are to be avoided for the simple reason that they who
have no fear of the Lord and are regardless of committing forbidden
actions are not to be relied on. Besides contagion will secretly
spread and he too will think of sin lightly and gradually lose power of
resisting it. And a greedy worldling is to be avoided because his
company will deaden the heart in the quest of the kingdom of
Heaven.
Alkama on his death bed gave a fine description of a friend. “My
son”, said he, “If you wish to keep company try to find out such a
friend who, when you live with him defends you, adds to your
prestige, bears the load of your hardships, helps you in your doings,
counts your virtues, dissuades you from vices, readily responds to
your requests, inquires himself for your needs when you keep quiet,
shows his deep sympathy in your sufferings, bears witness to your
sayings, gives good advice when you intend to do some work and
prefers you to his own self when difference arises between you and
him.” This piece of advice gives the qualities of a friend in a nutshell.
When Caliph Mamun the Abbaside heard of it, he said, “Where
should we find such a friend”. And Yahya replied, “Alkama’s
description means that we should live in retirement.”
Imam Jafar ‘Assadiq’ (the veracious) gives a negative description
of a friend. “Do not keep company with five sorts of men viz: a false
man who deceives you like a mirage; a fool who cannot benefit you,
(even if he tries to do so he would do harm through his foolishness;)
a miser who when you need his help the most, severs himself from
you; a coward who will leave you when you are in danger; a wicked
sinner who will sell you for a piece of bread.”
Sahl of Taster says, “Avoid the company of 3 kinds of men, (1)
tyrants who forget God, (2) Ulamas who practise dissimulation, (3)
Sufis who are ignorant.”
It must be remembered here that the above passages serve as an
ideal but for purposes we should look to the present practical
conditions and try to get as much good as may be had from them.
For man’s life seems dreary when he has no friends. And men are
like trees. Some are fruit-bearing and shady, some are shady only
and some are mere thorns and thistles. Similarly some friends are a
blessing both here and hereafter; some are for worldly gain for the
world is a shadow, and some are of no good in this world and the
next as if they are scorpions in human form.
“And they were not enjoined anything except that they should
serve Allah, being sincere to Him in obedience, upright, and keep up
prayer and pay the poor rate (zakat) and that is the right religion”.
[54] “Then serve God, being sincere in religion unto Him, Aye, God’s
is the sincere religion”. Musab says that his father Saad was
considering himself superior to other poor and destitute companions
of the Prophet. “God”, said the Prophet, “has helped my people with
my poor and humble followers’ prayer and sincerity.”[55] “Sincere
action,” says the Prophet “even if it be little will suffice for thee.”[56]
The following saying of the Prophet is reported by Abu Huraira:
“Three persons shall be questioned first on the day of resurrection.
One will be the learned man who would be asked as to what he had
done with his learning”. “Day and night,” the learned man will reply
“I tried my best to propagate it, O Lord”. “Thou speakest falsely”,
God will answer and the angels will also join with him. “Thy sole aim
was to be called a learned man by the people, and the title was
thine”. The second will be the rich man who would be asked about
his riches. “Day and night”, the rich man will reply, “I gave it in
charity.” “Thou speaker of untruth”, God and his angels will say.
“Thou wishest to be labelled a generous man, and it was done”. The
third will be the martyr who too will be asked about his deed. “O
Lord”, the martyr will reply, “Thou didst command us to wage Holy
war (Jehad), I obeyed thee and fell fighting”. “Thou liest,” God and
His angels will answer. “Thy aim was to be trumpeted as a hero and
it was done”. “Then,” says Abu Huraira, “the Prophet after finishing
the sermon pressed me and said: These three would be the first to
be thrown into the flames of hell”.
In the narratives of the Israelites, a story is told of a certain
devotee who had served God for many years. Once he was informed
of the apostacy of a tribe, which, forsaking the true worship of
Yahweh had taken to tree worship. The hermit filled with the spirit of
the “jealous” God took an axe and set out to level the tree to the
earth. But the devil in the shape of an old man met him on the way
and inquired of his intention. The hermit told him of his
determination, whereupon Satan addressed him thus: “Why on earth
are you leaving aside your prayers and vigils and devoting yourself
to other work!” “But this too is a sacred cause” replied hermit. “No,
nor will I allow you to do so” exclaimed the devil. Whereupon the
hermit in the white heat of his pious rage caught hold of the devil
and forcibly held him down. “Spare me Sir”, begged the devil, “I
have something to say to you.” The hermit let him go. Then spoke
Satan; “I think God has not commanded you to do this thing. You do
not worship the tree, you are not responsible for the sins of others.
If God wills it he will send some prophet, and they are so many, who
would carry out his order. So I think it is not your duty, why then
trouble yourself?” “But I belong to the chosen people of Yahweh,
and I am in duty bound to do so”, replied the hermit. Whereupon
they again began to wrestle and eventually Satan was thrown down.
“O! I see” cried Satan. “An idea has just come into my mind; let me
go please, and I will tell you.” Thus obtaining his release, the Evil
One addressed him as follows: “Is it not the case that you are poor
and have to live on the alms of those who are devoted to you? But
in your heart of hearts you would like to shower your bounties on
your brethren and neighbours so generous and compassionate is
your nature. What a pity that such a noble soul lives on alms”. “You
have read my mind aright,” quietly responded the hermit. “May I
hope,” said the Evil One entreatingly, “that you will be pleased to
accept two golden dinars which you will find at your bed side every
morning from tomorrow. You will then be relieved of depending on
others and be in a position to do charity to your poor relations and
brethren. As for that wretched tree, what if that be cut down. Surely
your poor needy brethren would get nothing and you would lose the
opportunity of helping them while the tree would grow again”. The
hermit pondered over these words and said to himself “This old man
speaks quite reasonably, but let me think over the pros and cons of
the case. Am I a prophet? No, I am not; therefore I am not bound to
cut it down. Am I commanded to do so? No. Then if I do not do it I
shall not be guilty of the iniquity. Should I accept his proposal? No
doubt from the religious point of view it is more useful. No doubt. I
think I should accept it: yes, I must.” Thus the two pledged their
words and the hermit returned. Next morning he found the two
dinars at his bed side and was highly pleased. Another morning the
glittering gold was there, but on the third morning the hermit
searched for them in vain. His fury knew no bounds. He rushed for
his axe, and hurried with it towards the place of idolatry. Satan again
met him in the way as before. “Thou wretch, thou arch-devil”, cried
out the hermit “wilt thou prevent me from my sacred duty?” “You
cannot do it, you dare not do it”, retorted the Evil one. “Hast thou
forgotten the test of my powers”, sharply replied the infuriated
hermit and rushed at him. But to his great discomfort and
humiliation the hermit instantly fell flat on the ground like a dry leaf
from a tree. The devil planted his foot on his chest, holding him by
the throat, dictating the following terms: “Either swear not to touch
that tree or be prepared to die”. The hermit finding himself quite
helpless said, “I swear, but tell me why I am so discomfitured”.
“Listen”, answered Satan. “At first thy wrath was for God’s sake, and
zealous vindication of his commandments. Hence I was defeated,
but now thou art furious for thyself, and worldly gain”. The story
illustrates the saying “I will certainly cause them all to deviate from
the way except thy servants from among those who are sincere”. A
devotee cannot be immune from Satan’s temptation except by
sincerity and therefore saint Maaruf of Karkh used to upbraid
himself, saying: “If thou wishest salvation, be sincere”.
Yacub, the Sufi, says: “He who conceals his virtues like vices, is
sincere.” In a dream a man saw a Sufi who was dead and inquired
about the actions of his previous life. “All those actions” said the
Sufi, “which were for God’s sake I was rewarded for, even the least
of them. For example, I had thrown aside a pomegranate’s peel from
the thoroughfare. I found my dead cat but lost my ass worth one
hundred dinars, and a silken thread on my cap was found on the
side of iniquities. Once, I gave something in charity, and was pleased
to see people looking at me,—this action has neither reward nor
punishment for me”. “How is it that you got your cat and lost your
ass?” said the man to the Sufi. “Because”, responded the latter,
“When I heard of the death of my ass I said: ‘Damn it’. I ought to
have thought of God’s will”. Saint Sufyan Saori, when he heard of
this dream, said, “The Sufi was fortunate as no punishment was
meted out to him for that charity which pleased him when people
watched him”.
There is a report that a man, putting on a woman’s dress used to
frequent purdah parties in marriage and funeral processions. Once a
lady’s pearl was lost in a party. Everybody was being closely
searched, and the man was very much afraid of the disclosure of his
identity, as it would mean the loss of his life. He sincerely repented
in his heart, never to do the same thing again, and asked God’s
forgiveness and help. Then he found that it was now the turn of
himself and his companion to be searched. His prayer was heard,
the pearl being found in his companion’s clothes and he was saved.
[57]

A Sufi narrates the following story: “I joined a naval squadron

which was going on holy war (Jehad). One of us was selling his
provision bag, and I bought it, thinking it would prove useful in the
war, and that when the war was over I might dispose of it with
profit. That same night I dreamt that two angels came down from
heaven. One of them said to the other: Make a complete list of the
crusaders. The other began to write down: So and so goes on a trip;
so and so for trading, so and so for reputation; so and so for God’s
sake. Then he looked at me saying: Put this man down as trader. But
I spoke: For God’s sake do not misrepresent me. I am not going for
business. I have no capital, I have simply started for the holy war.
“But Sir”, said the angel “Did you not buy that provision bag
yesterday, and were you not thinking of making some profit?” I wept
and entreated them not to put me down as a trader. The angel
looked at the other, who said: “Well, write thus: This man set out for
the holy war, but on the way bought a provision bag for profiting:
now God will judge the man”.
Saint Sari Saqati says: “Two rakats of prayer offered with sincerity
in seclusion are better than copying seventy or seven hundred
traditions with the complete list of authorities. Some say that one
moment’s sincerity is salvation, but it is very rare. Knowledge is the
seed, practice is the crop, and sincerity is the water nourishing it.
Some say that God’s displeasure is revealed in a person who is given
three things; and is denied the same number. He gets access into
the society of the virtuous, but derives no benefit therefrom. He
performs good actions but lacks sincerity. He learns philosophy but
fails to understand truth.” Says Susi: “God looks to sincerity only,
and not to the action of his creatures”. Says Junaid: “There are some
servants of God who are wise, who act as wise men, who are sincere
when they act, then sincerity leads them to virtue.” Mohammed, son
of Said Marwazi, says: “The whole course of our actions tends
towards two principles, viz. (1) His treatment meted out to thee; (2)
thy action for him. Then willingly submit to what is meted out to
thee and be sincere in all thy dealings. If thou art successful in these
two things thou shalt be happy in both the worlds”.
Says Sahl: “Sincerity means that all our actions or intentions—all
the states of our minds whether we are doing anything or at rest, be
solely for God.” But this is very difficult to acquire as it does not in
the least attract the ego itself. Rowim says: “Sincerity means
disregard of recompense for action in both the worlds”. In this he
wishes to point out that the gratifications of our sensuous desires
whether in this world or the next are all insignificant and low. He
who worships God in order to attain joy in paradise is not sincere.
Let him act for God’s “Riza”. This stage is reached by Siddiks
(Sincerely devoted to God), and is sincerity par excellence. He who
does good actions for fear of hell or hope of heaven is sincere in as
much as he gives up at present his sensual worldly enjoyment, but
wishes for the future, the gratification of his appetite and passion in
paradise. The longing of true devotees is their Beloved’s Riza. It may
be objected here that men’s motive is pleasure, that freedom from
such pleasures is a purely divine attribute. But this objection is
based on misunderstanding. It is true that man desires pleasure but
pleasure has different meanings. The popular view is gratification of
sensuous desires in Paradise but it has no idea of the nature of
higher pleasures of communion and beatitude or the vision of God,
and hence fails to consider them as pleasures. But these are the
pleasures and he who enjoys them will not even look to the popular
pleasures of Paradise for his highest pleasure. His summum bonum
is the love of God.
Tufail says: “To do good for men’s sake is hypocrisy; not to do is
infidelity; sincere is he who is free from both and works for God
only”. These definitions suggest the ideal of sincerity aimed at by
noble souls. Let us now look to the practical side of it for the sake of
the average man.
Actions make an impression on the heart, and strengthen that
quality of it which served as a stimulus for them. For example,
hypocrisy deadens the heart and godly motive leads to salvation.
Both of them will gather strength in proportion to the actions which
proceed from their respective sources. But as they are intrinsically
opposed to each other an action which gets an equal stimulus at one
and the same time will be stationary in its effect on the heart. Now
take a mixed action which draws the doer nearer to virtue, say, by
one span, but removes him away by two spans, the inward result of
his progress will be that he would remain where he was, although he
would be rewarded or punished according to his motive. A man
starts for “Haj” but takes with him some articles for trade, he will get
his reward of pilgrimage but if his motive was trade only, he could
not be considered a “Haji”. A crusader who fights for his religion
would have his recompense although he acquires booty, for so long
as his sole motive is to uphold the cause of religion the latent desire
of booty would not come in the way of his recompense. Granted that
he is inferior to those noble souls who are wholly absorbed in Him
“who see through Him, who hear through Him, who act through
Him,” (Hadis) He still belongs to the good and the virtuous. For if we
apply the highest standard to all, religion will be considered a
hopeless task, and will ultimately be reduced to pessimism.
At the same time we must sound a note of warning for those who
are satisfied with the low standard. They are very often deceived.
They consider their motive is purely for God’s sake while in reality
they aim at some hidden sensuous pleasure. Let a doer, after he has
exerted himself and pondered over his motive, be not over-confident
of his sincerity. With the fear of its rejection let him hope for its
acceptance—this is the creed of the righteous who fears the Lord
and hopes from him.
 THE NATURE OF LOVE[58]
Experiences are either agreeable and therefore desired or
disagreeable and avoided. Inclination towards a desired object when
deeply rooted and strong constitutes love. Knowledge and
perception of the beloved is the first requisite for love which is
consequently divided according to the division of the five senses
each of which is inclined towards its desired object. Thus the eye
apprehends beautiful forms, the ear harmonious sounds, etc. This
kind of experience we share with the animals. There is, however,
one more sense, peculiar to man, which delights the soul. The
prophet has said: “I desire three things from your world, sweet
smell, tender sex, and prayer, which is the delight of my eye”. Now
prayer is neither smelt nor touched—in fact its delight is beyond the
scope of the five senses and yet it has been described as the
“delight of my eye”, which means the inner eye—the soul with her
sixth sense. Concepts of this special sense are more beautiful and
charming than sensuous objects—nay, they are more perfect and
strongly attract the soul. Is it not, then, possible, that One who is
not perceived by the five senses may yet be found and felt attractive
by that sense and loved by the soul?
Let us now enumerate the circumstances which excite love. 1.
Every living being first of all loves his own self, that is to say, the
desire for continuity of his existence as opposed to annihilation is
innate. This desire is augmented by the desire of the perfection of
his self by means of sound body, wealth, children, relations and
friends. For all of these serve as a means to the end of the
continuity of his self and therefore he cherishes love for them. Even
“unselfish” love of his dear son, if probed, smacks of love for the
continuity of his self, because his son who is part of his self serves
as a living representative of his self’s continuity.
 2. The second cause is the love for one’s benefactor towards
whom the heart is naturally attracted. Even if he be a stranger, a
benefactor will always be loved. But it must be remembered that the
benefactor is loved not for himself, but for his beneficence, the
extent of which will be a dominating factor in determining the
degree of love.
3. The third cause is love of beauty. It is generally supposed that
beauty consists in red and white complexions, well proportioned
limbs, and so forth, but we can also say “beautiful writing”,
“beautiful horse”, etc. Hence beauty of an object consists in its
possession of all possible befitting perfections. It will vary in
proportion to the perfections attained. That writing in which all the
rules of caligraphy are properly observed will be called beautiful and
so on. At the same time there can be no one standard for judging
the beauty of different objects. The standard for a horse cannot be
the same for, say, writing or man. It must also be remembered that
beauty is not connected with sensible objects only but is also related
to concepts. A person is not always loved for his external beauty, but
often the beauty of his knowledge or virtues attracts the heart. It is
not necessary that the object of such kind of love be perceived by
the senses. We love our saints, imams, and prophets but we have
never seen them. Our love for them is so strong that we would
willingly lay down our lives for upholding their good name. If we
wish to create love for them in young minds we can produce it by
giving graphic accounts of their virtues. Stories of the heroes of any
nation will excite love for them.
“Love looks not with the eyes but with the mind; and
therefore is winged Cupid painted blind”.
4. The fourth cause is a sort of secret affinity between two souls,
meeting and attracting each other. It is what is called “love at first
sight”. This is what the prophet meant when he said “The souls had
their rendezvous: Those who liked each other, then love here; those
who remained strangers then do not join here”. If a believer goes to
a meeting where there are a hundred manafiks (hypocrites) and one
momin (faithful) he will take his seat by the side of the momin. It
seems that likes are attracted by their likes. Malik bin Dinar says:
Just as birds of the same feather fly together two persons having a
quality common to both will join.[59]
Let us now apply these causes and find out who may be the true
object of love. First, man who is directly conscious of his own self in
whom the love for continuity of the self is innate, if he deeply thinks
on the nature of his existence will find that he does not exist of his
own self, nor are the means of the continuity of his self in his power.
There is a being, self-existent, and living who created and sustains
him. The Quran says: “There surely came over man a period of time
when he was not a thing that could be spoken of. Surely we have
created man from a small life germ uniting. We mean to try him, so
we have made him hearing, seeing. Surely we have shown him the
way, he may be thankful or unthankful.”[60] This contemplation will
bear the fruit or love for God. For how could it be otherwise when
man loves his own self which is dependent on Him, unless he be
given up to the gratification of his passions and thereby forgetting
his true self and his sustainer.
Secondly, if he thinks over the aim and scope of beneficence, he
will find that no creature can show any purely disinterested favour to
another because his motive will be either 1. praise or self-
gratification for his generosity, or 2. hope of reward in the next
world or divine pleasure.[61] Paradoxical though it sounds, deep
insight into human nature leads us, inevitably to the conclusion that
man cannot be called “benefactor”, in as much as his action is
prompted by the idea of gain and barter. A true benefactor is one
who in bestowing his favours has not the least idea of any sort of
gain. Purely disinterested beneficence is the quality of the All-
merciful Providence and hence He is the true object of love.
Thirdly, the appreciation of inward beauty, that is to say the
contemplation of any attractive quality or qualities of the beloved
causes a stronger and more durable love than the passionate love of
the flesh. However such a beloved will still be found lacking in