Proton magnetic resonance data are reported for polycrystalline trimethylammonium iodide and brom... more Proton magnetic resonance data are reported for polycrystalline trimethylammonium iodide and bromide, and for poly and monocrystalline trimethylammonium hydrogen oxalate. The second moments at the lowest temperatures correspond to values calculated for rigid structures. Line narrowings occur in the temperature region 120-220 K; the values of the second moments at higher temperatures are consistent with combined reorientations of the methyl groups and the cations as a whole around their respective threefold pseudo-symmetry axes.
Spin-lattice relaxation times in the laboratory frame at 60.16 and 20.00 MHz are reported for tri... more Spin-lattice relaxation times in the laboratory frame at 60.16 and 20.00 MHz are reported for trimethylammonium iodide, bromide, chloride, and hydrogen oxalate in the temperature range 150-400 K. A model that makes it possible to analyze the experimental data on the basis of different assumptions regarding the reorientational motions of the methyl groups, the cations as a whole, and the correlations between these two types of motion is developed. No conclusions are drawn about the correlation since the two models investigated result in almost equally good fits with the experimental relaxation times. However, time factors, activation energies, and scale factors for the intramethyl relaxation constants could be determined from the retmements since the results were close for the two models, and thus apparently insensitive to reasonable assumptions about the correlations.
SMAK syftade till att undersoka mojligheterna att selektivt separera element med hog mobilitet i ... more SMAK syftade till att undersoka mojligheterna att selektivt separera element med hog mobilitet i botten- och flygaska. I faktordesignade extraktionsforsok identifierades de faktorer som har en sign ...
Landfilling of organic waste is no longer allowed in Sweden. Instead, essentially all such waste ... more Landfilling of organic waste is no longer allowed in Sweden. Instead, essentially all such waste is being recycled, and about half of it goes to incineration which accounts for about 10% of the total need for heating of buildings. Incineration implies destruction of potentially harmful constituents in the waste, but does not destroy contaminant elements such as arsenic which almost exclusively originates from impregnated wood. Methods for identification of chromium, copper and arsenic in such wood are analysed as well as techniques for sorting it into two categories. If incinerated separately, these can give rise to ash with Cr, Cu and As, and ash with only Cu. The former ash has a small volume and can be stabilized/landfilled at a qualified facility, and the latter ash might be used for beneficiation of Cu. In addition, the contamination by As, especially, in other fuels will be small and consequently also in the ash, thus facilitating its use. It is found that such sorting may be achieved using visual inspection as well as x-ray fluorescence (XRF), whilst use of reagents does not appear to offer any advantage over these two. Both methods are already in industrial use in Sweden, thus proving the feasibility of segregation and stabilization of contaminants in impregnated wood.
It is shown that for a single crystal and for correlation times τ » ω o −1 $$ \tau \gg w_0^{ - 1}... more It is shown that for a single crystal and for correlation times τ » ω o −1 $$ \tau \gg w_0^{ - 1}T_{ - 1}^{ - 1} = \left( {5Tr\Delta \underset{\raise0.3em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\thicksim}$}}{S} - \Delta \underset{\raise0.3em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\thicksim}$}}{S} } \right)/3w_0^2\tau $$ Where ΔS is the difference between the rigid lattice and motionally reduced second moment tensors, and ΔS is the corresponding difference in second moments for a particular orientation of the crystal.
The second largest asset to a company may well be its good reputation. Environmental liabilities ... more The second largest asset to a company may well be its good reputation. Environmental liabilities warrant special attention in this regard since they may well constitute the largest uncertainty in an annual report, and it is not seldom discovered that they have been underestimated. The purpose of the paper is to compile and present a road map as to how to meet the legal and other requirements, and to analyse the alternatives of proactive and reactive approaches. The legal requirements are to be found in various pieces of legislation, on different topics, and with a highly varying degree of detail. It is found that general statements, including the polluter pays principle, together with the requirements on annual reporting provide a good basis for developing a company strategy. Further information about how to plan for decommissioning and restoration, including financial planning can be found in various recommendations and standards from e.g. IAEA, OECD/NEA and ASTM, and support on cost methods is available from AACE and ISPA. More detail can be found in various open sources such as journal articles, conference proceedings and books. It is concluded that a proactive strategy, which includes early technical and financial planning, is associated with the lowest overall costs, and can eliminate many of the otherwise potentially very troublesome cost raisers. It is also concluded that with proper planning, funding is to be made using untaxed assets. Using taxed assets can constitute an efficient road block against proper decommissioning and remediation actions. It is concluded that a proactive and proper management of environmental liabilities-if properly communicatedcan constitute an important asset in terms of raised confidence among share holders, customers, interested parties and others.
In large parts of the world, the gas market has changed dramatically due to the fracking of rock,... more In large parts of the world, the gas market has changed dramatically due to the fracking of rock, including shale. It is also anticipated that significant changes will take place in the oil market due to the rapid introduction of the processing of shale for the purpose of oil and gas generation. Many fear that there will be substantial consequences for the environment, especially in the long term. The purpose of the present paper is to share some experiences from related historical activities in Sweden where alum shale has been used for oil extraction, burning of lime, alum production and uranium beneficiation. Legacies exist in terms of shale ash and fines as well as residues from the leaching of uranium, in quantities of a total of tens of millions of tonnes, and at various stages of remediation. The long-term integrity of these residues is analyzed with regard to the possibility of development of acid mine drainage, and in view of the low Ca and high S content. It is found that such developments cannot be excluded for the cases in which the alum shale had not been (properly) combusted. Waste materials having appropriately high pH acid buffering capacities to inhibit acidification are identified together with injection as a promising method of application. The need for mixing on a local scale is discussed together with the possible influence of the injection of slurry on ongoing fires. It is found that further knowledge is needed on a number of issues.
Proton magnetic resonance second moments and relaxation times at various temperatures are reporte... more Proton magnetic resonance second moments and relaxation times at various temperatures are reported for tri- and dimethyl ammonium iodide, bromide, chloride and hydrogen oxalate, and for most of the twenty common amino acids. A general procedure is described for the calculation of theoretical second moments and relaxation times in dipolar solids. In several cases, this procedure is applied to determine the molecular reorientations present as well as the corresponding activation barriers. The results are discussed with particular reference to hydrogen bonding
Combustion and incineration are utilized extensively in Sweden for the generation of heat and ele... more Combustion and incineration are utilized extensively in Sweden for the generation of heat and electricity. Substantial volumes of ash with varying chemical composition are also generated in the pro ...
The present status with regard to long-term behaviour of seals in landfills is analysed in with r... more The present status with regard to long-term behaviour of seals in landfills is analysed in with regard to lessons learned from nuclear waste disposal and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. It is found that detailed planning is warranted and required for technical as well as financial reasons. Existing knowledge is insufficient and needs to be supplemented e. g. by studies of ageing mechanisms and by investigations of natural and anthropogenic analogues.
After their service life is over, nuclear power plants must be decommissioned. Accordingly, Swede... more After their service life is over, nuclear power plants must be decommissioned. Accordingly, Sweden has a system with segregated funds to cover the costs. Payments to the funds are dictated by the results of recurrent cost estimates. Recently, differences have been observed between different estimations for the Barsebäck BWR:s. Therefore, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, who oversees the system, has commissioned the present study with the objective to investigate the reasons. The work comprises analyses of generic deviances as well as specific ones. It was found that the variations are within the ranges observed elsewhere, but that the precision in comparisons between different reactors can be improved. No new cost raisers were identified for the Barsebäck reactors. It was found that the cost estimation community strongly recommends the parametric method for early estimates whilst the cost calculations on decommissioning are mostly based on the bottom-up method. It is proposed that the parametric method be attempted for comparison between different reactors.
Microstructural and chemical parameters of bentonite as detrminants of waste isolation efficiency... more Microstructural and chemical parameters of bentonite as detrminants of waste isolation efficiency. European Commission, Final Report EUR 18950 Contract No F14W-CT95-0012.
In assessments of the safety of final repositories for nuclear waste situated in crystalline base... more In assessments of the safety of final repositories for nuclear waste situated in crystalline basement rock it is usually postulated that the transfer of radionuclides to the biosphere can take place only through transport by water. However, in order for such an assumption to be valid, it must be verified that any geogas that is present will not affect the transport-at least not to any significant degree. (The word geogas refers to the occurrence in the crystalline basement rock of substances which become gaseous at normal pressures and temperatures.) Geogas in crystalline rock consists of species such as nitrogen, argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen. The gas originates from the atmosphere, chemical reactions in the rock, the decay of radioactive elements in the rock, and degassing from the mantle of the earth. In most observed cases, geogas is dissolved in the groundwater. However, at elevated pressures and at low temperatures, methane may combine with water to form a solid phase commonly called methane-ice. The transfer of geogas through the rock and to the surface takes place through flow in fractures. Firstly, dissolved geogas migrates due to the flow of the groundwater, and secondly, pockets of gas may form and eventually be released in the form of bursts. In the second case, the gas might act as a carrier for heavy elements through four different mechanisms: 1) formation of volatile compounds, 2) formation of surface active complexes, 3) flotation, and 4) formation of aerosols. When a potential site for waste disposal is being evaluated, studies of geogas should form part of such a characterization programme. Favourable conditions for the formation of free gas may develop as a result of the heating of the rock by radioactive decay in the waste. It is also conceivable that methane-ice might form in the backfill of a repository in connection with a glaciation. The decomposition behaviour of such methane-ice appears to be largely unknown. Positive aspects may include the possibility of utilizing geogas flow for the non-destructive monitoring of a site after closure of the repository.
Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 2013
The fields of landfilling of conventional waste and that of surface disposal of nuclear waste hav... more The fields of landfilling of conventional waste and that of surface disposal of nuclear waste have developed quite independently and also partly out of phase with each other. The paper analyses what knowledge and experience might be mutually beneficial as well as what further knowledge may be needed. It is found that even though knowledge may exist, and information from lessons learned elsewhere be available, action may be subject to considerable initiation or incubation times. Legislation on financial reporting is summarized and its implications for early technical and financial planning are assessed. Prerequisites for long-term behaviour are analysed for the waste forms as well as for the seals and covers. The rationale for using natural and anthropogenic analogues is compiled, and alternative seals for landfills are analysed based on this information. Lessons learned from nuclear decommissioning are presented, and the difficulties encountered when the decommissioning takes place long times after commissioning and operation of a facility are illuminated. Comparison is made with contaminated soil in which area openly available domestic publications are lass abundant in some areas. The differences between end of license and end of responsibilities are clarified. Uranium-containing waste is presented as an example. Prerequisites are presented for natural uranium together with its progenies and for depleted uranium, initially without any daughters. It is found that both alternatives are associated with a number of issues to consider, and that both call for long-term containment for conventional chemical hazard and radiological hazard reasons.
The paper analyses the sustainability aspects of nuclear power with regard to environmental liabi... more The paper analyses the sustainability aspects of nuclear power with regard to environmental liabilities associated with decommissioning of nuclear facilities and with waste management. Sustainability is defined and literature on evaluation of sustainability in the nuclear and coal energy fields is reviewed. It is found that the results are incoherent and that methodologies for evaluations are needed as well as adequately structured knowledge bases. Examples of such tools and work are presented from the perspective of the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority. Different aspects of nuclear energy sustainability are reviewed and summarized, and it is found that appropriate management of the nuclear liability associated with protection of health and the environment-now and in the future-is a necessary prerequisite in order for nuclear power to qualify as sustainable. Analyses in a historical perspective show that sustainability awareness has been around for at least as long as agriculture, and that some shortcomings are actually modern inventions. The analyses also show that sustainability awareness may appear as trends and that comprehensive perspectives are essential. Planning for decommissioning and the estimation of associated costs have proven to be treacherous exercises. Moreover, the timing of the planning must be based on the need for appropriate finance so that adequate funds are available at the time when they are needed. It is the duty of our generation to assess what is adequate and to find responsible solutions. But we should also ask the next generation and carefully consider the perspective that they provide to us.
According to the statistics at the EC Commission, Sweden is the Champion by far in Europe in term... more According to the statistics at the EC Commission, Sweden is the Champion by far in Europe in terms of renewable energy. It comprised around 45% of the total in the year 2008. This position has been reached by a combination of natural resources, political determination and technology development. A major contributor to this is the extensive utilization of district heating which amounts to around 50 TWh per year, and which covers about half of the total need for industrial and domestic buildings. The district heating is based mainly on combustion of bio fuels together with waste and some peat. This practice is generally very positive from a sustainability perspective for the following reasons: (1) bio fuels are renewable, and so is peat, although over a longer time span; (2) waste is being recovered for energy purposes; and (3) ash material is, in many cases, re-circulated and recycled. However, sustainability is not only about total percentages, but also on the quality in the processes, especially in terms of qualification of fuels and ashes and the associated possibilities for more efficient combustion and incineration processes as well as ash utilization. Efficiency in this regard of course also includes protection of health and the environment. These aspects are explored in a technical as well as a legal perspective, and some possibilities for further development and improvement are identified and discussed. The compilation and analyses are based on more than ten years of research reports (mostly in Swedish) financed by District Heating in Sweden (Svensk Fjärrvärme), [The Swedish] Thermal Engineering Research Institute (Värmeforsk), the Swedish Waste Management (Avfall Sverige) and Svenska Energiaskor AB (which translates to: "Swedish Energy Ashes Inc.").
Anyone who owns and manages waste is obligated by law to know if it is hazardous or non-hazardous... more Anyone who owns and manages waste is obligated by law to know if it is hazardous or non-hazardous. However, proper classification of waste from incineration and combustion facilities as well as from steel mills may initially appear as a "mission impossible". In such waste, oxides of various elements appear in the form of various phases with non-stoichiometric and varying compositions that do not appear in the data bases on hazardous properties of various substances. The trace elements-which are the ones of highest significance for the classification-do not form phases of their own but are included in the phases formed by the major elements in the form of solid solution. Different batches of waste may have different ranges of compositions rendering direct testing an insurmountable task. A method is presented by means of which such residues can be classified in a conservative but still reasonably realistic and feasible manner. According to this method, elements of interest are regarded as if they appeared as simple oxides or as mixed oxides with iron. These reference substances are selected in such a manner that they can be found in databases on hazardous properties of various substances. Such data of the reference substances can then be used together with data from chemical analysis to calculate whether the waste in question is hazardous or non-hazardous. This approach has been pursued in Sweden at more than 30 plants with good results. It is anticipated that the method-after adjustment-can be used also under upcoming new legislation.
Proton magnetic resonance data are reported for polycrystalline trimethylammonium iodide and brom... more Proton magnetic resonance data are reported for polycrystalline trimethylammonium iodide and bromide, and for poly and monocrystalline trimethylammonium hydrogen oxalate. The second moments at the lowest temperatures correspond to values calculated for rigid structures. Line narrowings occur in the temperature region 120-220 K; the values of the second moments at higher temperatures are consistent with combined reorientations of the methyl groups and the cations as a whole around their respective threefold pseudo-symmetry axes.
Spin-lattice relaxation times in the laboratory frame at 60.16 and 20.00 MHz are reported for tri... more Spin-lattice relaxation times in the laboratory frame at 60.16 and 20.00 MHz are reported for trimethylammonium iodide, bromide, chloride, and hydrogen oxalate in the temperature range 150-400 K. A model that makes it possible to analyze the experimental data on the basis of different assumptions regarding the reorientational motions of the methyl groups, the cations as a whole, and the correlations between these two types of motion is developed. No conclusions are drawn about the correlation since the two models investigated result in almost equally good fits with the experimental relaxation times. However, time factors, activation energies, and scale factors for the intramethyl relaxation constants could be determined from the retmements since the results were close for the two models, and thus apparently insensitive to reasonable assumptions about the correlations.
SMAK syftade till att undersoka mojligheterna att selektivt separera element med hog mobilitet i ... more SMAK syftade till att undersoka mojligheterna att selektivt separera element med hog mobilitet i botten- och flygaska. I faktordesignade extraktionsforsok identifierades de faktorer som har en sign ...
Landfilling of organic waste is no longer allowed in Sweden. Instead, essentially all such waste ... more Landfilling of organic waste is no longer allowed in Sweden. Instead, essentially all such waste is being recycled, and about half of it goes to incineration which accounts for about 10% of the total need for heating of buildings. Incineration implies destruction of potentially harmful constituents in the waste, but does not destroy contaminant elements such as arsenic which almost exclusively originates from impregnated wood. Methods for identification of chromium, copper and arsenic in such wood are analysed as well as techniques for sorting it into two categories. If incinerated separately, these can give rise to ash with Cr, Cu and As, and ash with only Cu. The former ash has a small volume and can be stabilized/landfilled at a qualified facility, and the latter ash might be used for beneficiation of Cu. In addition, the contamination by As, especially, in other fuels will be small and consequently also in the ash, thus facilitating its use. It is found that such sorting may be achieved using visual inspection as well as x-ray fluorescence (XRF), whilst use of reagents does not appear to offer any advantage over these two. Both methods are already in industrial use in Sweden, thus proving the feasibility of segregation and stabilization of contaminants in impregnated wood.
It is shown that for a single crystal and for correlation times τ » ω o −1 $$ \tau \gg w_0^{ - 1}... more It is shown that for a single crystal and for correlation times τ » ω o −1 $$ \tau \gg w_0^{ - 1}T_{ - 1}^{ - 1} = \left( {5Tr\Delta \underset{\raise0.3em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\thicksim}$}}{S} - \Delta \underset{\raise0.3em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\thicksim}$}}{S} } \right)/3w_0^2\tau $$ Where ΔS is the difference between the rigid lattice and motionally reduced second moment tensors, and ΔS is the corresponding difference in second moments for a particular orientation of the crystal.
The second largest asset to a company may well be its good reputation. Environmental liabilities ... more The second largest asset to a company may well be its good reputation. Environmental liabilities warrant special attention in this regard since they may well constitute the largest uncertainty in an annual report, and it is not seldom discovered that they have been underestimated. The purpose of the paper is to compile and present a road map as to how to meet the legal and other requirements, and to analyse the alternatives of proactive and reactive approaches. The legal requirements are to be found in various pieces of legislation, on different topics, and with a highly varying degree of detail. It is found that general statements, including the polluter pays principle, together with the requirements on annual reporting provide a good basis for developing a company strategy. Further information about how to plan for decommissioning and restoration, including financial planning can be found in various recommendations and standards from e.g. IAEA, OECD/NEA and ASTM, and support on cost methods is available from AACE and ISPA. More detail can be found in various open sources such as journal articles, conference proceedings and books. It is concluded that a proactive strategy, which includes early technical and financial planning, is associated with the lowest overall costs, and can eliminate many of the otherwise potentially very troublesome cost raisers. It is also concluded that with proper planning, funding is to be made using untaxed assets. Using taxed assets can constitute an efficient road block against proper decommissioning and remediation actions. It is concluded that a proactive and proper management of environmental liabilities-if properly communicatedcan constitute an important asset in terms of raised confidence among share holders, customers, interested parties and others.
In large parts of the world, the gas market has changed dramatically due to the fracking of rock,... more In large parts of the world, the gas market has changed dramatically due to the fracking of rock, including shale. It is also anticipated that significant changes will take place in the oil market due to the rapid introduction of the processing of shale for the purpose of oil and gas generation. Many fear that there will be substantial consequences for the environment, especially in the long term. The purpose of the present paper is to share some experiences from related historical activities in Sweden where alum shale has been used for oil extraction, burning of lime, alum production and uranium beneficiation. Legacies exist in terms of shale ash and fines as well as residues from the leaching of uranium, in quantities of a total of tens of millions of tonnes, and at various stages of remediation. The long-term integrity of these residues is analyzed with regard to the possibility of development of acid mine drainage, and in view of the low Ca and high S content. It is found that such developments cannot be excluded for the cases in which the alum shale had not been (properly) combusted. Waste materials having appropriately high pH acid buffering capacities to inhibit acidification are identified together with injection as a promising method of application. The need for mixing on a local scale is discussed together with the possible influence of the injection of slurry on ongoing fires. It is found that further knowledge is needed on a number of issues.
Proton magnetic resonance second moments and relaxation times at various temperatures are reporte... more Proton magnetic resonance second moments and relaxation times at various temperatures are reported for tri- and dimethyl ammonium iodide, bromide, chloride and hydrogen oxalate, and for most of the twenty common amino acids. A general procedure is described for the calculation of theoretical second moments and relaxation times in dipolar solids. In several cases, this procedure is applied to determine the molecular reorientations present as well as the corresponding activation barriers. The results are discussed with particular reference to hydrogen bonding
Combustion and incineration are utilized extensively in Sweden for the generation of heat and ele... more Combustion and incineration are utilized extensively in Sweden for the generation of heat and electricity. Substantial volumes of ash with varying chemical composition are also generated in the pro ...
The present status with regard to long-term behaviour of seals in landfills is analysed in with r... more The present status with regard to long-term behaviour of seals in landfills is analysed in with regard to lessons learned from nuclear waste disposal and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. It is found that detailed planning is warranted and required for technical as well as financial reasons. Existing knowledge is insufficient and needs to be supplemented e. g. by studies of ageing mechanisms and by investigations of natural and anthropogenic analogues.
After their service life is over, nuclear power plants must be decommissioned. Accordingly, Swede... more After their service life is over, nuclear power plants must be decommissioned. Accordingly, Sweden has a system with segregated funds to cover the costs. Payments to the funds are dictated by the results of recurrent cost estimates. Recently, differences have been observed between different estimations for the Barsebäck BWR:s. Therefore, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, who oversees the system, has commissioned the present study with the objective to investigate the reasons. The work comprises analyses of generic deviances as well as specific ones. It was found that the variations are within the ranges observed elsewhere, but that the precision in comparisons between different reactors can be improved. No new cost raisers were identified for the Barsebäck reactors. It was found that the cost estimation community strongly recommends the parametric method for early estimates whilst the cost calculations on decommissioning are mostly based on the bottom-up method. It is proposed that the parametric method be attempted for comparison between different reactors.
Microstructural and chemical parameters of bentonite as detrminants of waste isolation efficiency... more Microstructural and chemical parameters of bentonite as detrminants of waste isolation efficiency. European Commission, Final Report EUR 18950 Contract No F14W-CT95-0012.
In assessments of the safety of final repositories for nuclear waste situated in crystalline base... more In assessments of the safety of final repositories for nuclear waste situated in crystalline basement rock it is usually postulated that the transfer of radionuclides to the biosphere can take place only through transport by water. However, in order for such an assumption to be valid, it must be verified that any geogas that is present will not affect the transport-at least not to any significant degree. (The word geogas refers to the occurrence in the crystalline basement rock of substances which become gaseous at normal pressures and temperatures.) Geogas in crystalline rock consists of species such as nitrogen, argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen. The gas originates from the atmosphere, chemical reactions in the rock, the decay of radioactive elements in the rock, and degassing from the mantle of the earth. In most observed cases, geogas is dissolved in the groundwater. However, at elevated pressures and at low temperatures, methane may combine with water to form a solid phase commonly called methane-ice. The transfer of geogas through the rock and to the surface takes place through flow in fractures. Firstly, dissolved geogas migrates due to the flow of the groundwater, and secondly, pockets of gas may form and eventually be released in the form of bursts. In the second case, the gas might act as a carrier for heavy elements through four different mechanisms: 1) formation of volatile compounds, 2) formation of surface active complexes, 3) flotation, and 4) formation of aerosols. When a potential site for waste disposal is being evaluated, studies of geogas should form part of such a characterization programme. Favourable conditions for the formation of free gas may develop as a result of the heating of the rock by radioactive decay in the waste. It is also conceivable that methane-ice might form in the backfill of a repository in connection with a glaciation. The decomposition behaviour of such methane-ice appears to be largely unknown. Positive aspects may include the possibility of utilizing geogas flow for the non-destructive monitoring of a site after closure of the repository.
Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 2013
The fields of landfilling of conventional waste and that of surface disposal of nuclear waste hav... more The fields of landfilling of conventional waste and that of surface disposal of nuclear waste have developed quite independently and also partly out of phase with each other. The paper analyses what knowledge and experience might be mutually beneficial as well as what further knowledge may be needed. It is found that even though knowledge may exist, and information from lessons learned elsewhere be available, action may be subject to considerable initiation or incubation times. Legislation on financial reporting is summarized and its implications for early technical and financial planning are assessed. Prerequisites for long-term behaviour are analysed for the waste forms as well as for the seals and covers. The rationale for using natural and anthropogenic analogues is compiled, and alternative seals for landfills are analysed based on this information. Lessons learned from nuclear decommissioning are presented, and the difficulties encountered when the decommissioning takes place long times after commissioning and operation of a facility are illuminated. Comparison is made with contaminated soil in which area openly available domestic publications are lass abundant in some areas. The differences between end of license and end of responsibilities are clarified. Uranium-containing waste is presented as an example. Prerequisites are presented for natural uranium together with its progenies and for depleted uranium, initially without any daughters. It is found that both alternatives are associated with a number of issues to consider, and that both call for long-term containment for conventional chemical hazard and radiological hazard reasons.
The paper analyses the sustainability aspects of nuclear power with regard to environmental liabi... more The paper analyses the sustainability aspects of nuclear power with regard to environmental liabilities associated with decommissioning of nuclear facilities and with waste management. Sustainability is defined and literature on evaluation of sustainability in the nuclear and coal energy fields is reviewed. It is found that the results are incoherent and that methodologies for evaluations are needed as well as adequately structured knowledge bases. Examples of such tools and work are presented from the perspective of the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority. Different aspects of nuclear energy sustainability are reviewed and summarized, and it is found that appropriate management of the nuclear liability associated with protection of health and the environment-now and in the future-is a necessary prerequisite in order for nuclear power to qualify as sustainable. Analyses in a historical perspective show that sustainability awareness has been around for at least as long as agriculture, and that some shortcomings are actually modern inventions. The analyses also show that sustainability awareness may appear as trends and that comprehensive perspectives are essential. Planning for decommissioning and the estimation of associated costs have proven to be treacherous exercises. Moreover, the timing of the planning must be based on the need for appropriate finance so that adequate funds are available at the time when they are needed. It is the duty of our generation to assess what is adequate and to find responsible solutions. But we should also ask the next generation and carefully consider the perspective that they provide to us.
According to the statistics at the EC Commission, Sweden is the Champion by far in Europe in term... more According to the statistics at the EC Commission, Sweden is the Champion by far in Europe in terms of renewable energy. It comprised around 45% of the total in the year 2008. This position has been reached by a combination of natural resources, political determination and technology development. A major contributor to this is the extensive utilization of district heating which amounts to around 50 TWh per year, and which covers about half of the total need for industrial and domestic buildings. The district heating is based mainly on combustion of bio fuels together with waste and some peat. This practice is generally very positive from a sustainability perspective for the following reasons: (1) bio fuels are renewable, and so is peat, although over a longer time span; (2) waste is being recovered for energy purposes; and (3) ash material is, in many cases, re-circulated and recycled. However, sustainability is not only about total percentages, but also on the quality in the processes, especially in terms of qualification of fuels and ashes and the associated possibilities for more efficient combustion and incineration processes as well as ash utilization. Efficiency in this regard of course also includes protection of health and the environment. These aspects are explored in a technical as well as a legal perspective, and some possibilities for further development and improvement are identified and discussed. The compilation and analyses are based on more than ten years of research reports (mostly in Swedish) financed by District Heating in Sweden (Svensk Fjärrvärme), [The Swedish] Thermal Engineering Research Institute (Värmeforsk), the Swedish Waste Management (Avfall Sverige) and Svenska Energiaskor AB (which translates to: "Swedish Energy Ashes Inc.").
Anyone who owns and manages waste is obligated by law to know if it is hazardous or non-hazardous... more Anyone who owns and manages waste is obligated by law to know if it is hazardous or non-hazardous. However, proper classification of waste from incineration and combustion facilities as well as from steel mills may initially appear as a "mission impossible". In such waste, oxides of various elements appear in the form of various phases with non-stoichiometric and varying compositions that do not appear in the data bases on hazardous properties of various substances. The trace elements-which are the ones of highest significance for the classification-do not form phases of their own but are included in the phases formed by the major elements in the form of solid solution. Different batches of waste may have different ranges of compositions rendering direct testing an insurmountable task. A method is presented by means of which such residues can be classified in a conservative but still reasonably realistic and feasible manner. According to this method, elements of interest are regarded as if they appeared as simple oxides or as mixed oxides with iron. These reference substances are selected in such a manner that they can be found in databases on hazardous properties of various substances. Such data of the reference substances can then be used together with data from chemical analysis to calculate whether the waste in question is hazardous or non-hazardous. This approach has been pursued in Sweden at more than 30 plants with good results. It is anticipated that the method-after adjustment-can be used also under upcoming new legislation.
Uploads
Papers by Rolf Sjöblom