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== Tʋʋma ==
== Tʋʋma ==
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'''Diib'''

Kawɛnna nɛ kawɛnzɔm anɛ dikpɛŋi sʋ’ʋlim bɛdigʋ dunia ni. Kawɛnna anɛ dinɛ ka ba mɔri maan kawɛnsaalim.<ref>"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch Cornstarch]". Merriam-Webster. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081317/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch Archived] from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2016.</ref> Kawɛnna saalim tʋn’e gɛndig ku’om bɛɛ ba gɛndig tisieba ka di tis high fructose corn syrup, dinɛ paasid malisim.<ref>European Starch Association (June 10, 2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140603234139/http://www.aaf-eu.org/factsheet-on-glucose-fructose-syrups-and-isoglucose/ "Factsheet on Glucose Fructose Syrups and Isoglucose"]. Archived from [http://www.aaf-eu.org/factsheet-on-glucose-fructose-syrups-and-isoglucose/ the original] on June 3, 2014. Retrieved January 11, 2024.</ref> Ba tun’e kɛ ka kawɛnna mi’ig ka ba silig ka di tis [[:en:Bourbon_whiskey|Bourbon whiskey]].<ref>Kiniry, Laura. "[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/where-bourbon-really-got-its-name-and-more-tips-on-americas-native-spirit-145879/?no-ist Where Bourbon Really Got Its Name and More Tips on America's Native Spirit"]. ''Smithsonian.com''. June 13, 2013.</ref> Ba ɛɛnti yis kawɛnna kpaam yinɛ daʋg la ni.<ref>Corn Refiners Association. [http://www.corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf Corn Oil] [https://web.archive.org/web/20190412091052/https://corn.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/CornOil.pdf Archived] 2019-04-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]] 5th Edition. 2006</ref>

Kʋdʋmin saŋa, Mesoamerican pʋ’ab da mɔrnɛ ''[[:en:Metate|metate]]'' nɛɛri kawɛnna ka di liebid zɔm. Ban da maal tan laas la nya’aŋ ka Olmec nidib da pin’ili la’asid kawɛnna nɛ bɛŋa dʋgʋd, ka maligim paasid diib la biim. La’anɛ kawɛnna mɛŋi mɔr [[:en:Niacin_(nutrient)|niacin]], dinɛ an biim kanɛ yɛla pak la, di pʋ nyaŋidi maan ka pʋ paas [[:en:Nixtamalization|nixtamalization]]. Maya la da ɛɛnti nɔknɛ nixtamal diibi maal kooko nɛ kawɛnna digɛnda kanɛ ka ba buon ye tamales.<ref>Pilcher, Jeffrey M. (2012). "Maize and the Making of Mexico". ''Planet taco : a global history of Mexican food''. [[:en:Oxford_University_Press|Oxford University Press. p.]] 27. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0199740062|978-0199740062]]</bdi>.</ref> Kawɛnna an dikpɛŋ tis Mexican cuisine dim. Masa (''nixtamal'') an biim kpɛŋ tis tortillas, atole nɛ diib nam bɛdigʋ banɛ bɛ Central America. Dinɛ an biimkpɛŋi bɛ corn tortilla, tamales, atole nɛ dibanɛ dɔlisidi ba.<ref>Davidson, Alan (2014). "Mexico". ''The Oxford Companion to Food'' (3rd ed.). [[:en:Oxford_University_Press|Oxford University Press. pp]]. 516–517. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7|<bdi>978-0-19-967733-7</bdi>.]]</ref> kawɛnna bʋn’ian’ada kanɛ yʋ’ʋri buon ye ''[[:en:Huitlacoche|huitlacoche]]'', ka di nɔbʋgʋd kawɛnna zug, anɛ dimalisiŋ bɛ Mexico.<ref>Peterson, James (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u05nDDNQ7TAC&dq=huitlacoche+delicacy+in+mexico&pg=PA184 Vegetables, Revised: The Most Authoritative Guide to Buying, Preparing, and Cooking, with More than 300 Recipes]''. [[:en:Random_House|Random House]]. p. 184. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-60774-205-0|978-1-60774-205-0]]</bdi>.</ref>

Ba mɔrnɛ kawɛnzɔm maan kooko buudi bɛdigʋ ni: din yi [[:en:Polenta|polenta]] dinɛ bɛ Italy, ''angu'' dinɛ bɛ Brazil, ''[[:en:Mămăligă|mămăligă]]'' dinɛ bɛ Romania, paae cornmeal mush dinɛ bɛ US (bɛɛ hominy grits dinɛ bɛ Southern US) bɛɛ dikanɛ yʋ’ʋri an [[:en:Mieliepap|mieliepap]] ka di bɛ South Africa la nɛ sadza, nshima, ugali nɛ yʋ’ʋsieba banɛ bɛ Africa lʋgsieba. Portuguese la da mɔri ken’ Africa na 16th century la ni, ka di yʋ’ʋn lieb Africa zʋkanɛ aan ba dikpɛŋ.<ref>Nweke, Felix I. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM "The cassava transformation in Africa".] [[:en:Food_and_Agriculture_Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization]]. Retrieved January 8, 2024</ref>

Kawɛnmalisa, dinɛ an kawɛnna buudi ka mɔr sikir bɛdigʋ ka mɔr titabid bi’ela la, anɛ dinɛ ka ba ɔnbid kansa ka kawɛnna la nam bɛ daʋg la zug.<ref>Nielsen, L. Michelle (2007). ''T[https://books.google.com/books?id=rCUaWVFfquMC&pg=PA27 he Biography of Corn]''. Crabtree Publishing. p. 27. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0778724919|<bdi>978-0778724919</bdi>.]]</ref>


'''Biim tɛbisim'''
'''Biim tɛbisim'''

Lɛm gɔs nwɛnnɛ 21:26, 3 Sawa'ar/Nwadispii nɛ yinne 2024

maize
ingredient
Subclass ofgrain, food Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Has usenutrition Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Natural product of taxonmaize Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Related categoryCategory:Maize products, Category:Maize production, Category:Maize dishes Dɛmisim gbɛlima

Kawεnna anε diib buudi kani zuoe duniya nwa ni. Ba kuod di zin’ig wʋsa ase Antarcia tεŋin ma'a ka ba pʋ kuoda. Kawεnna mʋr buudi kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb pinu (50) ka mɔr sin’em nam, nwanim, bεllim, nε ban zεnm siem buudi bεdigʋ. Piel, donbuulim, nε wiiʋg buudi la tita’am ka ba taa kuod.[1] Tεŋ sieba mε nɔŋ pielug nε donbuulim buudi la ka li bεnε tεŋ la nidib nε bamm bɔɔd siel. Ba da dεŋi sin’iŋ Kawεnna kuob nε Mexico tεŋin nε 1500 BC, mɔri paae Africa nwεni 1500 AD, ka ba naam baŋi li ka li pʋ yʋʋgε ka paae Africa na ka yʋ’ʋm an Africa dim dikpan.[1]

Sʋ’ʋm

Kawεnna anε kief kani an yεlkpani bε Sub-Saharan Africa(SSA) ka mε lεm an kief kani an yelkpan diib ka nidib gad wʋʋ 1.2 million m bε SSA nε Lati America nidib gat wʋʋ 300 million kpεn tia nε kawεnna mɔri dit. Kief kaŋa zin’ig sieba na tɔn’ɔm nɔki mal diib nε bɔmbani ka’a diibɔ. Africa Kɔbiga pʋʋgin di anε pistan’ kεŋi paae pisnu ka kawenna ligidi εɛnti sie Kɔbiga pʋʋgin an pistan bɛɛ pisnu (30%-50%).[1] Di gat wʋʋ pistan’, kɔbiga pʋʋgiŋ ka Sub-Saharan Africa nidib diib yit kawεnna ni na. Nε’εŋa zugɔɔ Africa tεm bibis la wʋsa ditnε kawεnna ka li aan ba di kpεʋŋ. Diŋzuk ka kpaadib yʋ’ʋm nɔk suosieba dinε na nyaŋi kε ka ba paamid diib bεdigʋ yi kawεnna ni. Fʋ mε tɔn’ɔm lεm di bεε ɔnb Kawεm ma’asa la ka li an dinε na tɔn’ɔm sʋŋ niŋgbin la.[1]

Kawɛnna (zea mays) ka North American English buon nɛ li corn la, anɛ mɔɔg kanɛ mɔr wa'alim ka an gbimiri ka wɛn bielim. Southern Mexico teŋ dimi da keŋ ka o lieb diib bʋnbʋtir, wʋʋ yʋʋma 9,000 babɛ da gaad la sa, yi mɔɔgin teosinte mɔɔg buudi ni. America dim da bʋdi linɛ la'as nɛ bɛŋa nɛ squashes pu'asada atan' pɔɔg kanɛ ka ba kuod sʋʋd kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb la ni. Li til la mɔr vaand bɛdegʋ la ni ka inflorescences daʋg naamid bɛɛ tassels linɛ tisid puum, nɛ inflorescences nya'aŋi buon tʋba. Tʋba la wɛn bielim la buon kernels bɛɛ biili. Dʋnbama nwa ni, li buudi kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb la ɛɛnti anɛ dɔnbʋʋlʋm bɛɛ pielig; li buudi sieba tun'e mɔri si'im bɛdegʋ.

Kawɛnna sʋm ye nidib zaŋi li kuob. Sankanɛ ni sa ka Columbia dim da ti'as sa, li lieb nɛ dunia la zin'is bɛdegʋ dikpɛŋ, ka li zʋʋd zɛmisim zu'oe gaad wbeat nɛ mwi. Kawɛnna tita'am mɔri maan bʋnkɔnbid diib, li zʋʋd la bɛɛ bʋnbʋtir la mɛŋ wʋsa, kanɛ ka ba tun'e kie bɔbig bɛɛ ba kie li vi

ka li paasi li malisim. Ba kuodɛ buudi kanɛ mɔr sikir bɛdegʋ la buon kawɛnna malisiŋ la nɛ nidib diib yɛla, ka lɛɛ kuod mɔɔgin din la bʋnkɔnbid diib yɛla, nɛ tʋʋm sieba wʋʋ commeal bɛɛ mass,corn starch,corn syrup nwiaki yis corn oil, daam wʋʋ bourbon whiskey, nɛ mɔri maan bʋnkɔbid diib la'am nɛ ethanol nɛ biofuel sieba.

Ba kuod kawɛnna dunia nwa ni zin'is wʋsa; yʋʋm wʋsa pʋʋgin, kawɛnna zʋʋd zuodi gat zʋʋd banɛ wʋsa bɛ. Yʋʋm Tusa ayi nɛ pisi (2020) la ni, dunia nwa kawɛnna zʋʋd kanl da anɛ billion tonnes nam 1.1. Bʋnvʋya nɛ ban'as bɛdegʋ daamidi li; bʋnvʋya buudi ayi, Europe bʋnvʋr kanɛ vʋt kawɛnna vɔnya nɛ kawɛnna nya'ar bʋnvʋya, kɛ ka ba nwɛn'ɛd samm US dollars billion yinne yʋʋm wʋsa. Dʋnna nwa bʋnbʋt sʋma sʋŋi kɛ ka zʋʋd paas ka malisim mɛ paas, buudbanɛ pʋ zɔt sawak, nɛ banɛ pʋ zɔt bʋnvʋya bɛ ban'asɛ. Ba yʋʋn naalimɛ kawɛnna tita'am ka ba lieb buudbanɛ sʋŋid.

Lin an diib la, ba mɔr kawɛnna maan diib buudi bɛdegʋ, diban sieba anɛ, Mexican tortalis nɛ tamales, Italian polenta, nɛ American hominy grits. Essential amino acid sieba ni kawɛnna malisim pɔɔdnɛ, ka niacin kanɛ ka li mɔr la ye bɛnɛ ba ya' maali li nɛ alkali. Mesoamerica teŋin, kawɛnna anɛ wʋʋ win nɛ ka ba kpi'a li zanbina.

Lin sin'iŋ si'em

Columbia da dɛŋi tʋm si'em

Kawɛnna bɔɔd ninsaal sʋŋir ye li vʋ'ʋg. Biilif la tansidnɛ li mɛŋ ka bʋnbʋtir la bul na, ka pak la yii li, li mɛŋ, ka yin kawɛnna lɛɛ pʋ aan ala.[2] Kawɛnna wʋsa yinɛ kawɛnnir yinne ni man ka Mexico ya-dagɔbʋg dim da zaŋ o lieb yin bʋnbʋttir lin zaŋ wʋʋ yʋma tusa awai (9,000) kanɛ gaad la sa. Kawɛnna buudi kanɛ yuug hali ka nan bɛi anɛ Mexican highlands. Kawɛnna da naam nɛ ani widigi kpɛn lowlands ti paae America ka widig dɔlis nɛ suoya ayi.[3] Zin'ig kanɛ kimm ka ba da mɔr kawɛnna yi mɔɔgini keŋ ka li kpɛlim yin da anɛ Balsas River, South Central Mexico bɔn'ɔgin.[4] Kawɛnna da ti paae highland Ecuador nɛ wʋʋ yʋma Tusa anii (8,000) kanɛ da gaad la sa.[5] Li da paae lower Central America nɛ yʋma Tusa ayɔpɔi nɛ kɔbisyuobʋ (7,600) kanɛ da gaad la, ka paae Columbia Andes bɔn'ɔdin nɛ yʋma Tusa ayɔpɔi (7,000) nɛ Yʋma Tusa ayuobʋ (6,000) banɛ da gaad la tensʋk.[4]

Yiiga kawɛnna la da yinɛ tʋbbil yinne bʋnbʋttir yinne wʋsa ni.[6] Olmec nɛ Maya dim da bʋd Kawɛnna buudi bɛdigʋ Mesoamerica teŋ la wʋsa ni; ba da dʋgʋd, nɛ'ɛm, ka mɔr nixtamalization maanɛ li.[7] Yʋma Tusa atan (3,000) kanɛ da gaada ni, Kawɛnna da an Olmec malima, la'am nɛ ba saansa nam, pian'ad nɛ ba sɔlima.[8]

Mapuche nidib la bɛ South-Central Chile da kuodi Kawɛnna la'am nɛ quinoa nɛ dankala ka pre-Hispanic saŋa nyaan paae.[9] Ka Inca Sʋ'ʋlim ma'am la nyaan da ti yalig la, ba da kpiŋid kawɛnna ka da mɔri lɔ'ɔmsid lateens hali, da paad ya-dagɔbʋg 40 S Melinquina teŋin, Lacar Department, Argentina, da na tun'e da'adi paad Andes yi Chile la.[10]

Columbia dim tia'sik

Europe dimi da ti kena, 1492 yʋʋm la ni la, Spanish dim banɛ da zin'in ani la da dit Kawɛnna nɛ, ka banɛ gɔɔndi vɛɛnsid nɛ kpikpinib da zii li lɛb Europe. Spanish dim banɛ da bɛɛ ani la da bɔɔdɛ wheat diibi gat Kawɛnna diib. Kawɛnna zɔ'ɔm da pʋ tun'e mɔri maan siis diib, wheat ya'a kae, Krista biis yadda zin'igin sankan la, wheat ma'aa da na nyaŋi zaŋi dɔlis transubstantiation ka tiaki lieb Krista niŋgbin la.[11]

Kawɛnna da widigi kpɛn' dunia nwa zin'is banɛ kpɛlim la ni, ka li anɛ lin nyaŋi zi'en zin'ig kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb ni la zug.[11] 17th century la nii, di da lieb dikanɛ ka banɛ bɛ Southern Europe la wʋsa dit. 18th century la saŋa, dinɛ da an dikpɛŋ tis southern French nɛ Italian dim, di kas-kas anɛ polenta dinɛ Italy la.[12]

Ban da mɔr kawɛnna ken’ Western kuob suoya ni na la, ba da siaki di din dʋ’ad bɛdigʋ si’em la zug. Nɛ wala, kɔm titada da li zin’ibanɛ ka ba dikpɛŋ an kawɛnna la.[13] Banɛ aan America teŋ dim la zamis ye ba wʋ’ʋl kawɛnna alkali-ku’om ni — dinɛ ka ba nɔk tampɛligim nɛ leemu maal — din yi nwɛnɛ yʋʋm tusir, nɛ kɔbisyi’ (1200) la ni kem paae yʋʋm tusir yinne nɛ kɔbisnu (1500) BC la ni, ba maanɛ nixtamalization suor. Ba maal nɛ’ɛŋa ye ba nyaŋi yis kawɛnna pa’ad la,amaa di mɛ yisid B-vitamin niacin, dinɛ ya’a kae ka pellagra naamid.[14] Ba gban’e Alkali maalʋg nɛ diid kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb maalʋg suor ka tʋmi di, ka pellagra bɔdig tembanɛ paam temmaalʋg dunia ni. Kawɛnbanɛ mɔr Lysine bɛdigʋ nɛ dikanɛ na mɔr biim ka di zɛmis mɛ paasi sʋŋi yisi di. Pellagra nan kpɛlim bɛ zin’ibanɛ ka diib pʋ zu’oe nɛ zin’ibanɛ ka saam nɛ zɔɔma la’asi bɛ ka ba vʋm wʋsa ti’e kawɛmbanɛ ka nidib piinli ba.[15]

Kuob

Ba kuod kawɛnna zin’ig wʋsa dunia ni, ka kawɛnbanɛ ka ba kuod yʋʋm pʋʋgin wʋsa mɔr tɛbisim gaad zʋbanɛ kpɛlim la. [16]Yʋʋm Tusa ayi nɛ pisi (2020) la ni, kawɛnbanɛ ka ba da ku’a dunia ni wʋsa da anɛ biliyɔnnam 1.16 tonnes,[17] ka banɛ da di ya’an yiiga anɛ United States ba da paamnɛ pistan nɛ yinne kɔbʋga pʋʋgin (31.0%). China da paamnɛ pisi nɛ ayi du’al anaasi kɔbiga pʋʋgin (22.4%) yi dunia wʋsa da paam si’em la ni.[18]

Kawɛnna an zʋkanɛ paasi ayi dunia wʋsa zʋʋd nam ni, Kikan’asiind dinɛ an yiiga la ya’a yi dinɛ tia’al.[19]

Bʋn-ian’ada

Bʋn-ian’ada bɛdigʋ na nyaŋi daam kawɛnna nɔbʋgir nɛ maalʋg, la’anɛ bʋnvuuda, mɔɔd, nɛ banɛ tisid ban’as.[20][21]

Kawɛnna anɛ dinɛ ka fungal, bacterial, nɛ viral banɛ kpɛn’ɛsid zʋʋd ban’as. Banɛ nar ye ti baŋi ba yɛla anɛ ban’abanɛ gban’ad viand la, smut nam nwɛnɛ kawɛnna smut, kawɛnna pun’or nɛ ba daad la na pun’oe.[22] Northern corn leaf blight san’amid kawɛnna kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb, banded leaf and sheath blighti an daaʋŋʋ bɛ Asia la.[23][24] bʋnvʋlbanɛ tisid kawɛnna ban’as sieba ka mɔr dɛmis anɛ mycotoxins nwɛnɛ aflatoxin.[25] United States nii, kawɛnna ban’as sieba anɛ tar spot, bacterial leaf streak, gray leaf spot, northern corn leaf blight, nɛ Goss's wilt; yʋʋm tusa ayi nɛ pisi nɛ ayi (2022) la ni, ban’akanɛ da mɔr daʋŋ hali da anɛ tar spot, dinɛ da kɛ ka ka ba kɔ’ɔŋ kawɛnna nwɛnɛ miliyɔnnam kɔbiga nɛ piinɛ ayuobʋ dʋ’ali anii (116.8) bushels.[26]

Kawɛnna da widigi keŋ ya-tuona din san'an, ba da di'e li, lin du'ad si'em la yɛla. Amaa, dauŋ zaŋi keŋ nidib la laafi yɛla da naam zin'ig kanɛ wʋsa ka ba zaŋi li ka li liebi ba dikpɛŋ.[13] America dim da zamisi wʋ'ʋn Kawɛnna zɛnku'om-kanɛ ka ba zaŋ zɛɛm nɛ mi'isʋgʋ maal-lin zaŋ wʋʋ 1200-1500 BC saŋa kanɛ gaad la sa, kɛ ka nixtamalization naamid. Ba da niŋ nwa nɛ ye li kɛ ka kawɛn bielif la bɛdim paas, ka li lɛɛ da niŋ si'alʋg ka B-vitamin niacin la paŋ paas, lin ya'a kae diibinɛ, li kɛt ka pellagra ban'as naamid.[14] Ban da yʋʋn baŋ zɛɛm la tʋʋma nɛ diib buudi nam la yɛla naae la, pellagra wiim la da lɛn kae teŋ banɛ nɔbig hali la nii. High-lysine Kawɛnna da kena ka ba yʋʋn da maan disʋma la da mɛ ka li bɔdig. Pellagra nan kpɛn bɛ zin'ibanɛ ka ba pʋ maan disʋmaa nɛ zin'ibanɛ ka nidib zɔ yi zaba tensi nɛ la'as zin'isi'a kanɛ ka nidib la dittɛ Kawɛnna kanɛ ka ba piini ba.[15]

Tʋʋma

Diib

Kawɛnna nɛ kawɛnzɔm anɛ dikpɛŋi sʋ’ʋlim bɛdigʋ dunia ni. Kawɛnna anɛ dinɛ ka ba mɔri maan kawɛnsaalim.[27] Kawɛnna saalim tʋn’e gɛndig ku’om bɛɛ ba gɛndig tisieba ka di tis high fructose corn syrup, dinɛ paasid malisim.[28] Ba tun’e kɛ ka kawɛnna mi’ig ka ba silig ka di tis Bourbon whiskey.[29] Ba ɛɛnti yis kawɛnna kpaam yinɛ daʋg la ni.[30]

Kʋdʋmin saŋa, Mesoamerican pʋ’ab da mɔrnɛ metate nɛɛri kawɛnna ka di liebid zɔm. Ban da maal tan laas la nya’aŋ ka Olmec nidib da pin’ili la’asid kawɛnna nɛ bɛŋa dʋgʋd, ka maligim paasid diib la biim. La’anɛ kawɛnna mɛŋi mɔr niacin, dinɛ an biim kanɛ yɛla pak la, di pʋ nyaŋidi maan ka pʋ paas nixtamalization. Maya la da ɛɛnti nɔknɛ nixtamal diibi maal kooko nɛ kawɛnna digɛnda kanɛ ka ba buon ye tamales.[31] Kawɛnna an dikpɛŋ tis Mexican cuisine dim. Masa (nixtamal) an biim kpɛŋ tis tortillas, atole nɛ diib nam bɛdigʋ banɛ bɛ Central America. Dinɛ an biimkpɛŋi bɛ corn tortilla, tamales, atole nɛ dibanɛ dɔlisidi ba.[32] kawɛnna bʋn’ian’ada kanɛ yʋ’ʋri buon ye huitlacoche, ka di nɔbʋgʋd kawɛnna zug, anɛ dimalisiŋ bɛ Mexico.[33]

Ba mɔrnɛ kawɛnzɔm maan kooko buudi bɛdigʋ ni: din yi polenta dinɛ bɛ Italy, angu dinɛ bɛ Brazil, mămăligă dinɛ bɛ Romania, paae cornmeal mush dinɛ bɛ US (bɛɛ hominy grits dinɛ bɛ Southern US) bɛɛ dikanɛ yʋ’ʋri an mieliepap ka di bɛ South Africa la nɛ sadza, nshima, ugali nɛ yʋ’ʋsieba banɛ bɛ Africa lʋgsieba. Portuguese la da mɔri ken’ Africa na 16th century la ni, ka di yʋ’ʋn lieb Africa zʋkanɛ aan ba dikpɛŋ.[34]

Kawɛnmalisa, dinɛ an kawɛnna buudi ka mɔr sikir bɛdigʋ ka mɔr titabid bi’ela la, anɛ dinɛ ka ba ɔnbid kansa ka kawɛnna la nam bɛ daʋg la zug.[35]

Biim tɛbisim

Kawɛnmalisa, dɔnbʋʋlʋm, kansa (bielim ma’aa)
Biimkanɛ bɛ di ni 100 g pʋʋgin (3.5 oz)
Paŋ 360 kJ (86 kcal)
Carbohydrates 18.7 g
Starch 5.7 g
sikir 6.26 g
Dietary fiber 2 g
Kpaam 1.35 g
Protein 3.27 g
Tryptophan 0.023 g
Threonine 0.129 g
Isoleucine 0.129 g
Leucine 0.348 g
Lysine 0.137 g
Methionine 0.067 g
Cystine 0.026 g
Phenylalanine 0.150 g
Tyrosine 0.123 g
Valine 0.185 g
Arginine 0.131 g
Histidine 0.089 g
Alanine 0.295 g
Aspartic acid 0.244 g
Glutamic acid 0.636 g
Glycine 0.127 g
Proline 0.292 g
Serine 0.153 g
Sieba Zɛm si’em
Ku’om 75.96 g
Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[36] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[37]

Kawɛnkansa, banɛ an dɔnbʋʋlʋm, bʋmmalisa mɔrnɛ ku’om pisyɔpɔi nɛ ayuobʋ kɔbiga pʋʋgin (76%), carbohydrates anɛ piinɛ awai kɔbiga pʋʋgin (19% ), protein aan atan’ kɔbiga pʋʋgin (3% ), ka Kpaam an yinne kɔbiga pʋʋgin (1%). 100-gram wʋsa ni, kawɛnmalisa tisidnɛ paŋ nwɛnɛ pisnii nɛ ayuobʋ (86) ka an sʋm tisid biimbanɛ digi teŋir la piiga ti paae piinɛ awai kɔbiga pʋʋgin daar wʋsa (10–19%); B vitamins, thiamin, niacin , pantothenic acid (B5) nɛ folate.[38] Kawɛnna mɛ lɛm mɔr bibama bi’el-bi’el amino acids tryptophan nɛ lysine, dinɛ ta’as ka di protein an bi’ela.[39] Protein banɛ bɛ bɛŋa nɛ zʋbanɛ bɛ ba dɔɔgʋn la sʋŋid kawɛnnna din la.[39]

Yʋda

Kawɛnna yʋ'ʋr la da yinɛ Spanish pian'ad kanɛ an maiz yi Taino mahiz ni.[40] Swedish nid Carl Linnaeus onɛ da gɔsid bʋnbʋtta bɛllim yɛla da zaŋ yʋ'ʋr la Kawɛnna, ka li an epithel Kawɛnna buudi la Zea mays ni.[41] Baŋir zamisʋg zin'is nɛ sʋ'ʋlim nam bɛdegʋ gaŋ yʋ'ʋkpɛŋ nwa, Kawɛnna n gat corn kanɛ mɛ an Kawɛnna yʋ'ʋr ya'as la, bɔzugɔ yʋ'ʋkanɛ sʋm nɛ bielif la, ka li mɔr gbin kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb bɛdegʋ zaŋi ken lin pian' tʋʋm si'a ni, nɛ teŋkanɛ ni ka li pian'. [42]Tens bɛdigʋ yɛt ye maize, ka yʋ'ʋr corn la anɛ United States nɛ tens banɛ pian'ad naasaal bi'ela nwa buon ye corn.[43][44] Tens banɛ buon ye maize la, ba buon corn la ka li pa'an nɛ cereal bʋnbʋtta, ka li an teŋ la dikpɛŋ,[45] wʋʋ wheat England teŋin nɛ oats Scotland bɛɛ Ireland tensing.[42] Yʋ'ʋr la corn pa'an ye maize la da naam nɛ ye li kʋ'ʋg "India corn" giŋa 18th century la saŋa North America teŋin.[46]

Betty Fussell onɛ da an diibi sin'iŋ si'em mit la sɔbi gbaʋŋʋn pian'ak la corn, North America teŋin ye "pian'ak la corn anɛ li li tragi-farcical pian'ad lɛbigirin nɛ sin'iŋir yɛla".[8] Li nwɛni nɛ British buon si'em, Spanish dim la buon Kawɛnna ye panizo yʋ'ʋr kanɛ ka ba mɔri tisid biella zʋʋd, wʋʋ Italian dim buon ye polenta la. British dim da yuolʋm buon Kawɛnna ye wheat, ka Turkey ye corn, bɛɛ Indian corn; Fussell da yɛl ye "ba da pʋ pa'an nɛ lin da an si'emm, ka lɛɛ da anɛ gɔɔgin bʋn ka ka' linɛ da maali an sʋ'ʋŋaa.[8]

Dunia la'asig nam wʋʋ centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International da siak di'e maize ye li an Kawɛnna yʋ'ʋr.[47] Pian'ak la maize, UN Food and Agriculture Organization buon nɛ yʋ'ʋkan[48] nɛ Mexico dim International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre buon yʋ'ʋsieba la. Indian Institude of maize Research,[49] Maize Association of Australia la,[50] Nigeria National Maize Association la,[51] National Maize Association of Ghana la,[52] South Africa Maize Trust la,[53] nɛ Zimbabwe Seed Maize Association la.[54]

Bʋnbʋttir la an si'em

Kawɛnna anɛ mɔwɔk kanɛ ka ba kuodi li yʋʋm-yʋʋm ka di mɔr til yimmir, ka li wa'alim an wʋʋ lin yi 1.2 m (4ft) paae 4 m (13 ft).[55] Vaand la wa'am ka banl la naamidi gbida la nii tɔɔndi yit, li yitnɛ kawɛndaag la zin'is ayi la wʋsa.[55] Kawɛnna anɛ monoecious, ka mɔr puum la bʋnnya'aŋ nɛ bʋndaʋg bʋnbʋttir wʋsa ni. Kawɛndaag la zʋgʋn sa ka gɛɛns la bɛ, pudaʋg la zin'ig; gɛɛns la ni ka zʋʋm la bɛ, ka pɛbisim da'ae ba widig[55]. Wʋʋ zʋʋm sieba nɛ, li anɛ allergen amaa li bɛdegʋ liib zin'ig pʋ lal nɛ gɛɛns laa ka banɛ tʋm pɔɔgin la di'ed dɛŋ la bɛdegʋ.[56] Punya'aŋ la, lin yi gɛɛns la ni sigid tillin la, fʋ nyɛt ka li anɛ (silk), nɛ tubular hairs bɔbir kanɛ bʋgʋs, ka yinne an carpel kanɛ bɛ punya'aŋin la din, linɛ nɔbigidi liebid bielif ( ka ba buonni li bielif, ka anɛ al nɛ mɔɔd buudi wʋsa, li anɛ wɛl ka bielif la lusi li ka li bɛɛ pʋʋgin ye li lieb caryopsis) [57]ba ya'a la'asi naae.[55] Pu nya'aŋ la wʋsa nɔbigid nɛ liebid tʋbʋr bɛɛ corncob, pɔnbil nɛ vaand bɛdegʋ. Tʋbʋra vaang la an vankanɛ kpɛn bɛnɛ tʋbʋr kanɛ nɔbigidi yitna. Vankaŋa nwa nɛ banɛ bɛɛ li zugun la tisid nɛ (carbohydrate), starch pʋdigir zin'is atan' linɛ bɛ bielif la ni.[58]

Dʋnbama Kawɛnna buudi kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb biela la si'im anɛ dɔnbʋʋlim bɛɛ pielig; buud sieba anɛ (orange), zuanam, (brown), saa-sangbaʋŋ, (purple) bɛɛ sabilig. Ba maali anɛ bɔɔnlʋ nam 8 ti paae 32 kawɛndibir zugʋn.[6] Kawɛn dɔnbʋʋlim nyɛtti li si'im yitnɛ carotenoids ni; anthocyanins nɛ phlobaphenes tisid si'im zian, ka si'im bama la'asidi tit (orange ) nɛ dɛn'ɛm si'im.[59]

Kawɛnna mɔr dabis gim photoperiodism, li gbin anɛ li maan puum nɛ yʋ'ʋŋ. Puum maalig bɔɔdɛ tʋʋlʋg bɛdegʋ kanɛ gaad 10 °C (50 °F) dabisir saŋa pʋʋgin. Puum maalig la naamid nɛ li mɛŋ; saa-sangbauŋ nɛ dɛn'ɛm si'im la kɛt ka bʋnbʋtira an wala. Budbanɛ ka ba kuod tʋʋlʋg zin'is la tun'e pʋ mɔr daamʋg zin'is banɛ dʋ agɔla, kanɛ ka dabisa zu'oe bɛdegʋ la tun'e kɛ ka bʋnbʋtira duoe nɛ wa'alin ka kʋ nyaŋi pian'ak bielaka waad saŋa nyaan paae. Li mɛ tun'e an ye, ba duod nɛ wa'alim la anɛ bugum yɛla.[55]

Kawɛnzɛba mɔrɛ ka kanɛ san'am bʋnvʋya, 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA), linɛ sʋŋidi gʋ'ʋd bʋnvʋya buudi bɛdegʋ.[60] Li nya'a la pʋ laligid la zugɔɔ, li kʋ tun'e mɔr vʋm sawak ya'a zi'enɛ, ka kʋ zi'en tan kanɛ ni ka kʋ'ʋlʋm pɔɔda, ka pɛbis tita'ar tun'e vuoe li.[61]

Lin naamid si'em

Kawɛnna anɛ dipoid, li mɔrɛ chromosomes nam ban pisi (20). Mɔrɛ allelic 83% kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb ka li bɛ genome kanɛ yinɛ li teosinte yaab la san'an, ka li anɛ lin mɔr nyadi nɛ Zea buudi la ti paae buudi gɛnda la.[62] Barbara McClintock da zaŋi Kawɛnna ka li an kasɛt o transposon tʋʋma kanɛ an "jumping genes" la, kanɛ ni k'o da di ya'an piini 1983 Noble Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[63] Kawɛnna nan kpɛn anɛ bʋnbʋttir kanɛ ka ba na gɔsid lin an si'em la ma mɔri tʋmmi dɔlisid bʋnbʋt sieba ni, nɛ developmental biology.[64] MADS-box motif la kɛ ka Kawɛnna maan puum.[65]

Kawɛnna la naamid si'em nɛ lin an si'em wʋsa, (Genetics and Genomics Database) paamid ligidi yitnɛ US Department of Agriculture, ka li mɔri gɔsid Kawɛnna vɛɛnsʋg tʋʋma.[66] International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center keŋ tuonɛ mɔr Kawɛnna buudi bɛdegʋ banɛ ka bʋn-ianda pʋ tɔn'ɔ baa.[67] Yʋʋm tusa ayi nɛ anu (2005) la ni, US Science Foundation, Department of Agriculture nɛ Department of Energy la da la'as nɛ taaba gɔs naamʋg la ken ka tit taaba si'em. DNA la kennɛ tit taaba si'em la, da zaŋi digil nɛ GenBank ban da kpɛn naae la, zin'ikanɛ ka ba su'ad naamʋg la yɛla ken si'em.[68] Ba da tʋm naae nɛ Yʋʋm tusa ayi nɛ anii (2008) la ni.[69] Yʋʋm tusa ayi nɛ awai (2009) la ni, la'asʋg la da yisi ba tʋʋma la da nyɛ li si'em ban da naae la.[70] Genome la, pisnii nɛ anu kɔbiga pʋʋgin (85%) anɛ transposons la, mɔrnɛ gene nam Tusa pistan nɛ ayi, kɔbisnu nɛ pisnaasi (32,540). Bɛdegʋ ni, ba lɛn maali ba buudi paas ka ti'asi ba nɛ helitrons, ban anɛ transposable elements banɛ bɛ Kawɛnna DNA la ni.[71]

Buudi kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb

Buudi banɛ da pʋn bɛ

Kawɛnna buudi banɛ da dɛŋi bɛ la da kɛ ka bʋnbʋtta la da mɔr bɛdim ka yit tʋblamma. Dʋnbama Kawɛnna buudi banɛ yʋʋn bɛla la da anɛ ninsieba da gaans Kawɛn buudi banɛ du'ad sʋ'ʋŋa ba pɔɔdinɛ kuosi tis kpaadib. James L. Reid anɛ banɛ da dɛŋ yiiga maki li nyaŋ la nid yinne, onɛ da maal Reid's Yellow Dent 1860 yʋʋma la saŋa. Tʋʋm bama da naam nɛ zin'is wʋsa, mass selection (ba da bʋdɛ kawɛnbuudi yimmir vuk yinne zug) ka yʋʋn gaŋ bʋnbʋttira li ya'a niŋ puum naae la, (ka lin gbin pa'al ye bʋnnya'aŋ la ka ba na baŋ). Ka lin nya'aŋ ka ba gaans tʋba la vugusin la (C. G. Hopkins c 1896), ka gaŋ buudi ayi la du'a buudi si'a la an inbred la (G. H. Shull, 1909), nɛ double cross hybrid kanɛ yi sʋ'ʋŋa la niŋ inbred nam anaasi (D. F. Jones c 1918, 1922). University nam sʋŋir bʋmbuudi la'asʋg tʋʋma la da an sʋm hali, kas kas bʋmbuudi paala maalʋg la zin'igin.[72]

Yʋʋm tusir kɔbiswai nɛ pisnaasi (1940) la saŋa ni sa ti paae zina, kawɛn sʋma buudi la anɛ yiiga la'asʋg buudi la ka ba gaŋ ye li an sʋm li yɛlsieba ni wʋʋ du'a bɛdʋg yɛla, malisim yɛla, sawaki pʋ tɔn'ɔ ba si'em la yɛla, bʋnvʋya nɛ ban'asi pʋ tɔn'ɔ ba si'em yɛla n.[73] Kawɛn buudi kanɛ ka ba da la'as la, nɛ banɛ ka ba tiak ban na an si'em la nyaŋi kɛ ka zʋʋd paas, ka pɔɔg lɛɛ sie, pɔɔg tima, ku'om nɛ bugulum. Kasɛt kanɛ bɛ la pʋ dɔl nɛ ban yɛt ye Kawɛnna yʋʋn du'ad zʋʋd bɛdegʋ yʋʋma bi'ela banɛ la ni. Nɛ' pa'al yɛ Kawɛnna zʋʋd du'am yit nɛ vaang la na bɛ zin'isia bʋnbʋttir la zug, ban nyaŋi bɛi ba zin'igin la si'em, ba kpieʋŋi zɛm si'em, ban tɔn'ɔ ban'as si'em, nɛ pɔɔg maalʋg nɛ kuob yɛlsieba ni, ka li ka'a nɛ zʋʋd bɛdegʋ paamʋg bʋnbʋttir yinne ni yɛllɛ.

Zin'is banɛ tʋl la nan kpɛn an sʋm, ka ba pʋ kuodi li ni bɛdegʋ wʋʋ lin nar si'em la, ka alleles la wɛɛli digi-banɛ ban'as din nɛ banɛ ɔnbid vaand ma'aa. Ba na nyaŋi yis alleles bama yinne san'anɛ tɔlisi tis yinne ka li lieb buudsʋŋ kanɛ du'ad buudisʋma. Dao nɛ Sood da ieya, paam alleles la buudi si'a tʋʋm kaŋa yɛla 2014 yʋʋm la ni. 2018 yʋʋm la ni, Zerka Rashid, CMMYT da dɔlis association mapping la'asʋg la maal buudi banɛ pʋ zɔt sawak kɔ, ye ba paam genemic zin'is paala, ka tisid sorghum downy mildew resistance, ka li na an differentially methylated regions.

Ban ti'asi li si'em

Kawɛnna da paas bielim nɛ bʋnbʋʋta pisi nɛ ayʋobʋ (26) banɛ ka ninsaalib da tiak ban an siem  ka kuosidiba yʋʋm tusayi’, piinɛ ayʋobʋ (2016) lan pʋʋgin.[74][75] bʋʋd kanɛ da zuo’e gat anɛ Bt maize. Kawɛnna ka ba da nyaŋi tiak la, ba bʋdi ba bʋnpaala hali lin yi yʋʋm tusir, kɔbʋswai nɛ piswai nɛ ayɔpɔi (1997) bɛ United States nɛ Canada;[76] lin da yi yʋʋm tusayi, nɛ piinɛ ayuobʋ (2016), piswai nɛ ayi’ kɔbiga pʋʋgin (92%) kawɛn banɛ da bɛ US la wʋsa, ba da tiak bʋnbʋtta nwa’ da an siem nɛ.[74] yʋʋm tusayi’, nɛ piine yinne (2011) saŋa, kawɛn banɛ ka tikanɛ puusidi kʋʋd mɔɔd kʋ nyaŋi kʋʋ ba nɛ kawɛn banɛ ka bʋn-ian’ada pʋ tɔn’e ba da yina ka li paae wʋʋ tɛns pisi (20) yelli bʋdi li.[77] yʋʋm tusayi’ la, nwadis awai (September 2000) la ni, na’asaatɛŋ ligidi wʋʋ million pisnu’ ($50 million) diib buudi-buudi ka ba da yi paalʋ na, dɔlisnɛ Starlink kawɛnna bʋʋdi kanɛ ka ba tiak la, ka ba da nam bas nɛ suor ye bʋnkɔbit ma’a dim.[78]

Lin yi zin'isi'a na

Lin ti'as buudi-buudi siem

Kawɛn bielif tʋŋ linɛ an Zea bɔɔdi keŋ wɛn wʋʋ sorghum nɛ , ayi’ la wʋsa yinɛ duniya mɔkʋda bʋʋdi banɛ buon PACMAD clade la nina, ka lɛɛ bɛi ba kɔn’ nɛ mui nɛ wheat, banɛ mɛ anɛ mɔɔd banɛ bɛi ba kɔn’ ka yinɛ BOP clade bʋʋdi la nina. Ka lin wɛn Tripsacum, nɛ gamagrass paa.[79]

Kawɛnna nɛ li tuŋ la

Kawɛnna anɛ bʋnbʋttir buudi kanɛ ka ba da zaŋi kul yinni maal ka li lieb lin an si'em nwa la, ka li yinɛ li tuŋ buudi anaasi la ni, banɛ an Kawɛnna buudi banɛ bɛ mɔɔgin.[80] Russia nid onɛ da gɔsid bʋnbʋtta yɛla, Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov da yina nɛ Kawɛnna tuŋ la da si'iŋ si'em na 1931 yʋʋm la ni, nɛ America nid George Beadie, onɛ da di ya'an piini, 1932 yʋʋm la ni la.[81] Buudi ayi la pʋ nwɛn taabaa, Kawɛnna mɔrɛ da-yimmir kanɛ wa'am ka mɔr vaand bɛdegʋ, ka mɔɔgin din la daag la gim, ka vaand la zu'oe gilig o.

Yʋʋm tusayi’, nɛ anaasi (2004) ni la, John Doebley da vɛn’ɛsi nyɛ ka Balsas teosinte, Zea mays subsp. parviglumis, yine Balsas River valley ni Mexico yadagɔbʋg-tuona kʋkʋna ni na, bɔzugɔ mɔɔgin kawɛnna banɛ bɛi anina la bʋʋdi nɛ kawɛnna banɛ bɛ zina wɛn bɛdigʋ.[82][83] Balsas River kʋkʋna ni la tɛnsʋk mɛ tɔn’e an anina ka kawɛnna kpɛ’ɛ yaan kʋdimin la. Nɛɛr nɛ li kuga, nɛ kawɛnzɔm nɛ kawɛng bʋama ka ba  nyɛ tampilɛŋ kʋdʋg kanɛ bɛɛ paae yʋʋma tusanii’, nɛ kɔbisyɔpɔi (8,700) linɛ pʋ lal nɛ Iguala, Guerrero sʋ’ʋlim.[84] Doebley nɛ o taaba da pa’al yʋʋm tʋsayi’, nɛ ayi’ (2002) ye kawɛnna da kpɛ’ɛ yin nɛ nɔɔr abʋyinne, ka li an wʋʋ yʋʋma tusawai (9,000)  banɛ gaad la ni, ka yadig biel-bieli paae America.[3]

Kawɛnlɔm da pin’il nɛ yʋʋma tusayɔpɔi, ne kɔbistan’ banɛ gaad la, bɛnɛ  San Andres, Tabasco ka ba nyɛ li Caribbean coast.[84] Ba da bʋd kawɛn kʋda bɛnɛ southern Mexico, Central America, nɛ northern South America yʋʋm tusayɔpɔi (7,000) banɛ gaad la. Ba da nyɛ kawɛnkʋda ka ba bɛ pa’adin bɛ Guila Naquitz Cave linɛ bɛ Oaxaca Valley sʋ’ʋlim, ka li na yʋʋgi paae yʋʋm tusayʋobʋ, kɔbisyi’ nɛ pisi (6,250); nɛ sieba ka ba bɛi Tehuacan tampilɛma baba, Puebla sʋ’ʋlim, ka ba na paae yʋʋma tusanu’, kɔbisnaasi nɛ pisnu’ (5,450) kawɛnna.[7]

Gbanvεεnsa

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Contreras, A.; Ruíz Corral, J. A.; Menjívar, J.; Aragón Cuevas, F.; González Ledesma, M.; Sánchez, J. J. (2019). "Zea mays". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: E.T77726273A77726310. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T77726273A77726310.en.
  2. ↑ Benz, B. F. (2001). "Archaeological evidence of teosinte domestication from Guilá Naquitz, Oaxaca". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (4): 2104–2106. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.2104B. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.4.2104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 29389. PMID 11172083.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Matsuoka, Y.; Vigouroux, Y.; Goodman, M. M.; et al. (2002). "A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (9): 6080–4. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.6080M. doi:10.1073/pnas.052125199. PMC 122905. PMID 11983901.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Piperno, Dolores R. (October 2011). "The Origins of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Patterns, Process, and New Developments". Current Anthropology. 52 (S4): S453–S470. doi:10.1086/659998. S2CID 83061925. Recent studies in the Central Balsas River Valley of Mexico, maize's postulated cradle of origin, document the presence of maize phytoliths and starch grains at 8700 BP, the earliest date recorded for the crop (Piperno et al. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009). A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Given the number of Cauca Valley, Colombia, sites that demonstrate early maize, it is likely that the inter-Andean valleys were a major dispersal route for the crop after it entered South America
  5. ↑ Pagán-Jiménez, Jaime R.; Guachamín-Tello, Ana M.; Romero-Bastidas, Martha E.; Constantine-Castro, Angelo R. (June 2016). "Late ninth millennium B.P. use of Zea mays L. at Cubilán area, highland Ecuador, revealed by ancient starches". Quaternary International. 404: 137–155. Bibcode:2016QuInt.404..137P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.025.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Davidson, Alan (2014). "Maize". The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 484–486. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Roney, John (Winter 2009). "The Beginnings of Maize Agriculture". Archaeology Southwest. 23 (1): 4.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Fussell, Betty (1999). "Translating Maize into Corn: The Transformation of America's Native Grain". Social Research. 66 (1): 41–65. JSTOR 40971301. Gale A54668866 ProQuest 209670587. To say the word "corn" is to plunge into the tragi-farcical mistranslations of language and history. If only the British had followed Columbus in phoneticizing the Taino word mahiz, which the Arawaks named their staple grain, we wouldn't be in the same linguistic pickle we're in today, where I have to explain to someone every year that when Biblical Ruth "stood in tears amid the alien corn" she was standing in a wheat field. But it was a near thing even with the Spaniards, when we read in Columbus' Journals that the grain "which the Indians called maiz... the Spanish called panizo.' The Spanish term was generic for the cereal grains they knew - wheat, millet, barley, oats - as was the Italian term polenta, from Latin pub. As was the English term "corn", which covered grains of all kinds, including grains of salt, as in "corned beef". French linguistic imperialism, by way of a Parisian botanist in 1536, provided the term Turcicum frumentum, which the British quickly translated into "Turkey wheat", "Turkey corn", and "Indian corn". By Turkey or Indian, they meant not a place but a condition, a savage rather than a civilized grain, with which the Turks concurred, calling it kukuruz, meaning barbaric.
  9. ↑ Dillehay, Tom D.; Pino Quivira, Mario; Bonzani, Renée; Silva, Claudia; Wallner, Johannes; Le Quesne, Carlos (2007). "Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change" (PDF). Antiquity. 81 (314): 949–960. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00096034. S2CID 59480757.
  10. ↑ Pérez, Alberto E.; Erra, Georgina (2011). "Identificación de maiz de vasijas recuperadas de la Patagonia noroccidental argentina" [Identifying maize residues in pottery vessels in northwestern Patagonia, Argentina]. Magallania (in Spanish). 39 (2): 309–316. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442011000200022. hdl:11336/42613.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Earle, Rebecca (2012). The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17, 144, 151.
  12. ↑ Langer, William L. (1975). "American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850". Journal of Social History. 8 (2): 51–66. doi:10.1353/jsh/8.2.51. JSTOR 3786266.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "The origins of maize: the puzzle of pellagra". EUFIC > Nutrition > Understanding Food. The European Food Information Council. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006. Retrieved September 14, 2006.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Staller, John; Carrasco, Michael (November 24, 2009). Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 317. ISBN 978-1-4419-0471-3.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Thompson, Janice J.; Manore, Melinda; Vaughan, Linda (January 15, 2016). "Nutrients involved in energy metabolism". The Science of Nutrition. Pearson Education. pp. 292–321. ISBN 978-0-13-429880-1.
  16. ↑ International Grains Council (international organization) (2013). "International Grains Council Market Report 28 November 2013" (PDF).
  17. ↑ World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021. Rome: FAO. 2021. doi:10.4060/cb4477en. ISBN 978-92-5-134332-6. S2CID 240163091.
  18. ↑ "FAOSTAT". FAO.
  19. ↑ Figure 21: World production of primary crops, main commodities (Report). United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). November 29, 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en-fig21
  20. ↑ "Corn Pests". Utah State University. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  21. ↑ Mueller, Daren; Pope, Rich, eds. (2009). Corn Field Guide (PDF). Iowa State University Extension. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  22. ↑ "Diseases and Disorders of Corn". Province of Manitoba - Agriculture. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  23. ↑ Wise, Kiersten. "Diseasees of Corn: Northern Corn Leaf Blight" (PDF). Purdue University. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  24. ↑ Juroszek, Peter; von Tiedemann, Andreas (2013). "Climatic changes and the potential future importance of maize diseases: a short review". Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection. 120 (2): 49–56. doi:10.1007/BF03356454. S2CID 87234896.
  25. ↑ Ostrý, Vladimír; Malíř, František; Pfohl-Leszkowicz, Annie (2015). "Comparative data concerning aflatoxin contents in Bt maize and non-Bt isogenic maize in relation to human and animal health – a review". Acta Veterinaria Brno. 84 (1): 47–53. doi:10.2754/avb201585010047.
  26. ↑ "Corn Disease Loss Estimates From the United States and Ontario, Canada — 2022". cropprotectionnetwork.org. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  27. ↑ "Cornstarch". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2016.
  28. ↑ European Starch Association (June 10, 2013). "Factsheet on Glucose Fructose Syrups and Isoglucose". Archived from the original on June 3, 2014. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  29. ↑ Kiniry, Laura. "Where Bourbon Really Got Its Name and More Tips on America's Native Spirit". Smithsonian.com. June 13, 2013.
  30. ↑ Corn Refiners Association. Corn Oil Archived 2019-04-12 at the Wayback Machine 5th Edition. 2006
  31. ↑ Pilcher, Jeffrey M. (2012). "Maize and the Making of Mexico". Planet taco : a global history of Mexican food. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0199740062.
  32. ↑ Davidson, Alan (2014). "Mexico". The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 516–517. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7.
  33. ↑ Peterson, James (2012). Vegetables, Revised: The Most Authoritative Guide to Buying, Preparing, and Cooking, with More than 300 Recipes. Random House. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-60774-205-0.
  34. ↑ Nweke, Felix I. "The cassava transformation in Africa". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved January 8, 2024
  35. ↑ Nielsen, L. Michelle (2007). The Biography of Corn. Crabtree Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 978-0778724919.
  36. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on March 27, 2024. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  37. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on May 9, 2024. Retrieved June 21, 2024.
  38. ↑ USDA Database entry
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Chapter 8: Improvement of maize diets; from corporate document: Maize in human nutrition". Food and Agriculture Organization. 1992. Retrieved June 5, 2017.
  40. ↑ "maize, n. (and adj.)" Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  41. ↑ Ranum, Peter; Peña-Rosas, Juan Pablo; Garcia-Casal, Maria Nieves (April 2014). "Global maize production, utilization, and consumption". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1312 (1): 105–112. Bibcode:2014NYASA1312..105R. doi:10.1111/nyas.12396. PMID 24650320. S2CID 4640742.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Ensminger, Audrey H. (1994). Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. CRC Press. p. 479. ISBN 978-0-8493-8980-1. The word "maize" is preferred in international usage because in many countries the term "corn", the name by which the plant is known in the United States, is synonymous with the leading cereal grain; thus, in England "corn" refers to wheat, and in Scotland and Ireland it refers to oats.
  43. ↑ McLellan Plaisted, Susan (2013). "Corn". In Smith, Andrew (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199739226. Retrieved February 15, 2023. The use of the word "corn" for what is termed "maize" by most other countries is peculiar to the United States. Europeans who were accustomed to the names "wheat corn", "barley corn", and "rye corn" for other small-seeded cereal grains referred to the unique American grain maize as "Indian corn." The term was shortened to just "corn", which has become the American word for the plant of American genesis.
  44. ↑ Espinoza, Mauricio (April 1, 2015). "'All Corn Is the Same,' and Other Foolishness about America's King of Crops". Ohio State University: College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences. Archived from the original on December 3, 2020. Retrieved September 21, 2022.
  45. ↑ "corn, n.1" Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  46. ↑ Mencken, H. L. (1984). The American language : an inquiry into the development of English in the United States (4th ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 122. ISBN 0394400755. Corn, in orthodox English, means grain for human consumption, especially wheat, e.g., the Corn Laws. The earliest settlers, following this usage, gave the name of Indian corn to what the Spaniards, following the Indians themselves, had called maiz. . . . But gradually the adjective fell off, and by the middle of the Eighteenth Century maize was simply called corn and grains in general were called breadstuffs. Thomas Hutchinson, discoursing to George III in 1774, used corn in this restricted sense speaking of "rye and corn mixed." "What corn?" asked George. "Indian corn," explained Hutchinson, "or as it is called in authors, maize."
  47. ↑ "Zea mays (maize)". Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  48. ↑ "Maize". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  49. ↑ "Overview – ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research". Archived from the original on October 5, 2022. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  50. ↑ "Maize Association - Maize Association Australia". Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  51. ↑ "The Maize Association of Nigeria honors IITA for supporting the nation's agriculture". International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  52. ↑ "SARD-SC Maize component supports the launch of the Ghana Maize Association". International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. March 18, 2016. Retrieved March 10, 2024
  53. ↑ Du Plessis, Leon. "THE MAIZE TRUST: Custodian of the maize industry". Grain SA. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
  54. ↑ Rusike, Joseph; Donovan, Philip A (1995). "The maize seed industry in Zimbabwe". Development Southern Africa. 12 (2): 189–196. doi:10.1080/03768359508439804. ISSN 0376-835X.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 Solaimalai, A.; Anantharaju, P.; Irulandi, S.; Theradimani, M. (May 10, 2020). "6. Growth and Development Stages". Maize Crop: Improvement, Production, Protection and Post Harvest Technology. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-000-17695-7.
  56. ↑ Oldenburg, Marcus; Petersen, Arnd; Baur, Xaver (2011). "Maize pollen is an important allergen in occupationally exposed workers". Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology. 6 (1): 32. doi:10.1186/1745-6673-6-32. PMC 3269392. PMID 22165847.
  57. ↑ "Caryopsis". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved January 9, 2024.
  58. ↑ "Before applying fungicides to corn: Stop! Look! Consider!". Integrated Crop Management. Iowa State University Extension. Retrieved July 24, 2021.
  59. ↑ Chatham, Laura A.; Paulsmeyer, Michael; Juvik, John A. (2019). "Prospects for economical natural colorants: insights from maize". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 132 (11): 2927–2946, and Figure 1. doi:10.1007/s00122-019-03414-0. PMID 31451836. S2CID 201729476.
  60. ↑ Smith, C. Michael; Clement, Stephen L. (2012). "Molecular Bases of Plant Resistance to Arthropods". Annual Review of Entomology. 57 (1): 309–328. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100642. PMID 21910639.
  61. ↑ "Corn Stalk Lodging" (PDF). Monsanto Imagine. October 2, 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009. Retrieved February 23, 2009.
  62. ↑ Wani, Shabir Hussain; Samantara, Kajal; Razzaq, Ali; Kakani, Grihalakshmi; Kumar, Pardeep (June 2022). "Back to the wild: mining maize (Zea mays L.) disease resistance using advanced breeding tools". Molecular Biology Reports. 49 (6): 5787–5803. doi:1.1007/s11033-021-06815-x.0 PMID 35064401. S2CID 254834535.
  63. ↑ Brown, David (November 20, 2009). "Scientists have high hopes for corn genome". The Washington Post.
  64. ↑ Strable, Josh; Scanlon, Michael J. (2009). "Maize (Zea mays): A Model Organism for Basic and Applied Research in Plant Biology". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2009 (10): pdb.emo132. doi:10.1101/pdb.emo132. ISSN 1940-3402. PMID 20147033.
  65. ↑ Friedman, William E.; Moore, Richard C.; Purugganan, Michael D. (October 2004). "The evolution of plant development". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10). John Wiley & Sons: 1726–1741. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1726. PMID 21652320. Botanical Society of America.
  66. ↑ "Welcome to MaizeGDB". MaizeGDB. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  67. ↑ Prasanna, Boddupalli M.; Bruce, Anani; Beyene, Yoseph; Makumbi, Dan; Gowda, Manje; Asim, Muhammad; Martinelli, Samuel; Head, Graham P.; Parimi, Srinivas (November 2022). "Host plant resistance for fall armyworm management in maize: relevance, status and prospects in Africa and Asia". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 135 (11): 3897–3916. doi:10.1007/s00122-022-04073-4. PMC 9729323. PMID 35320376
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  69. ↑ "Researchers sequence genome of maize, a key crop". Reuters. February 26, 2008. Retrieved October 6, 2014
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  71. ↑ Feschotte, C.; Pritham, E. (2009). "A cornucopia of Helitrons shapes the maize genome". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (47): 19747–19748. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10619747F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910273106. PMC 2785235. PMID 19926864.
  72. ↑ Jugenheimer, Robert W. (1958). "Agricultural Development Paper #62". Hybrid Maize Breeding and Seed Production. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
  73. ↑ Duvick, D. N.; Cassman, K. G. (2009). "Post-green-revolution trends in yield potential of temperate maize in the north-central United States". Crop Science. 39 (6): 1622–1630. doi:10.2135/cropsci1999.3961622x. S2CID 39657597. Archived from the original on November 15, 2009.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 James, Clive (2016). "Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2016 – ISAAA Brief 52-2016". ISAAA. Archived from the original on May 4, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
  75. ↑ ISAAA Brief 43-2011: Executive Summary, retrieved September 9, 2012
  76. ↑ Ostrý, Vladimír; Malíř, František; Pfohl-Leszkowicz, Annie (2015). "Comparative data concerning aflatoxin contents in Bt maize and non-Bt isogenic maize in relation to human and animal health – a review". Acta Veterinaria Brno. 84 (1): 47–53. doi:10.2754/avb201585010047.
  77. ↑ "ISAAA Pocket K No. 2: Plant Products of Biotechnology, 2018". Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 9, 2024.
  78. ↑ Pollack, Andrew (September 23, 2000). "Kraft Recalls Taco Shells With Bioengineered Corn". The New York Times.
  79. ↑ Gaut, Brandon S.; Le Thierry d'Ennequin, Maud; Peek, Andrew S.; Sawkins, Mark C. (June 20, 2000) ."Maize as a model for the evolution of plant nuclear genomes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (13): 7008–7015. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.7008G. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7008. PMC 34377. PMID 10860964.
  80. ↑ Whipple, Clinton J.; Kebrom, Tesfamichael H.; Weber, Allison L.; Yang, Fang; Hall, Darren; et al. (August 16, 2011). "grassy tillers1 promotes apical dominance in maize and responds to shade signals in the grasses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (33): E506-12. doi:10.1073/pnas.1102819108. PMC 3158142. PMID 21808030.
  81. ↑ Wilkes, Garrison (March 8, 2004). "Chapter 1.1 Corn, strange and marvelous: but is a definitive origin known?". In Smith, C. Wayne; Betrán, Javier; Runge, E. C. A. (eds.). Corn: Origin, History, Technology, and Production. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–63. ISBN 978-0-471-41184-0.
  82. ↑ Doebley, John F. (2004). "The genetics of maize evolution" (PDF). Annual Review of Genetics. 38: 37–59. doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.092425. PMID 15568971. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 12, 2010. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
  83. ↑ Wu, Chi-Chih; Diggle, Pamela K.; Friedman, William E. (September 2011). "Female gametophyte development and double fertilization in Balsas teosinte, Zea mays subsp. parviglumis (Poaceae)". Sexual Plant Reproduction. 24 (3): 219–229. doi:10.1007/s00497-011-0164-1. PMID 21380710. S2CID 8045294.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Ranere, Anthony J.; Piperno, Dolores R.; Holst, Irene; Dickau, Ruth; Iriarte, José (2009). "The cultural and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (13): 5014–5018. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.5014R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812590106. PMC 2664064. PMID 19307573.Ranere, Anthony J.; Piperno, Dolores R.; Holst, Irene; Dickau, Ruth; Iriarte, José (2009). "Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (13): 5019–5024. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.5019P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812525106. PMC 2664021. PMID 19307570.
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