Chapter one

Introduction to internet

 The network formed by the co-operative interconnection of a large number of computer

networks
 Networks of networks
 No one owns the internet
o Every person who makes a connection owns a slice of the internet
 There is no central administration to the internet.
 What is it actually?
 A community of people:-who use and develop the networks
 A collection of resource: that can be reached from those networks
 A setup to facilitate collaboration:-among members of the research and educational
communities, world-wide
 The connected networks use the TCP/IP protocol.
 An Internet service provider (ISP), also called telephone companies or other telecommunication
providers, provides services such as Internet access
Important Internet Applications
 Telnet
 File Transfer Protocol
 E-mail
 Gopher
 Internet Relay chat
 Usenet News
 World Wide Web

Introduction to TCP/IP

 TCP/IP is the first set of protocols used in internet

 Allows computers to communicate/share resources across a network.
 Work on TCP/IP started in the 1970s.
o Funded by US military
o Advanced Research Project Agency
o Network protocols of ARPANET were upgraded.
 The modern internet sits on top of the TCP/IP technology.
 Used as a standard.
 To bridge the gap between non-compatible platforms.
 All computers connected to the internet understand TCP/IP.
Network layering in TCP/IP

 In 1978, International Standard Organization (ISO) proposed a 7-layer

reference model for network services and protocols.

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  Known as the OSI model
 TCP/IP does not strictly follow this 7 layer model
 TCP/IP follows a simplified 4- layer model
Why Layering?
 To provide well-defined interface between adjacent layers.
 A change in one layer does not affect the other layers.
 Interface must remain the same
 Allows a structured development of network software.
The 7-layer OSI model
 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Datalink
 Physical

The simplified 4-layer model

 Application:-runs on top of layers 1,2,and 3

 Transport:-end to end message transfer
 Network:-packet delivery across internet
 Datalink:-frame transmissions over link

TCP/IP protocol suite

 Refers to a family of protocols

 The protocols are built on top of connectionless technology.
 Data sent from one node to another as a sequence of datagrams.
 Each datagram corresponding to the same message may follow d/t routes
o Variable delay, arrival order at destination.

What does IP do?

 IP transports datagram (packets) from the source to the destination node.

 Responsible for routing the packets.
 Breaks a packet into smaller packets, if required.
 Unreliable service
o A packet may be lost in transit.
o Packet may arrive out of order.
o Duplicate packets may be generated.

What does TCP do?

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  TCP provide a connection –oriented, reliable service for sending messages.
 Split a message into packets
 Reassemble packet at destination.
 Resend packets that were lost in transmit.
 Interface with IP:
 Each packet forwarded to IP for delivery.
 Error control is done by packet.

World Wide Web(WWW)

 Latest revolution in the internet scenario.

 Allows multimedia documents to be shared between machines.
 Containing text,image,audio,video,animation.
 Basically a huge collection of inter-linked documents.
 Billion of documents
 Inter-linked in any possible way
 Resembles a cob-web

 A way to access and provide information in various media via the Internet.
 A hypertext based system for providing, organizing and accessing information that allows users
to jump from one information space to another.
 Comprises servers and client computers on the Internet that communicate using the hypertext
transfer protocol (http)
 Body of information available on the Web
 Where do the documents reside?
 On web servers
 Also called Hyper Text Transfer Protocol(HTTP)servers
 They are typically written in
 Hyper Text Markup Language(HTML)

 Computer running application software that listens and responds to a client computer’s request
made through a web browser
 Machine that hosts web pages and other web documents
 Provides web documents and other online services using HTTP
Example of Web server
 Apache
 IIS
 Document get formatted /displayed using
 Web browsers

 Application software that is used to locate and issue a request for the page on the web server
that hosts the document
 It also interpret the page sent back by the web server and display it on the monitor of the client
computer

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  Computer program that lets you view and explore information on the World Wide Web
Example of Web browsers
o Internet Explorer
o Netscape
o Mozilla Firefox
o Google chrome

What makes the Web work?

The Web relies on these mechanisms:
 Hypertext - provides easy navigation among documents and resources
 Universal Resource Locator (URL) - uniform naming scheme for Internet resources
 Client and server computers - Web access is based on client/server technology
 Protocols - set of standards used to access resources via the Web
What is HTTP?

 Hypertext Transfer protocol

 A protocol using which web clients (browsers) interact with web servers
 It is a stateless protocol.
 Fresh connection for every item to be downloaded
 Transfers hypertext across the internet.
 A text with links to other text documents
 Resembles a cob-web and hence the name world wide web
HTTP Protocol
 Web clients(browsers) and web servers communicate via HTTP protocol.
 Basic steps:
 Client opens socket connection to the HTTP server.
o Typically over port 80
 Clients sends HTTP request to server.
 Server sends back response
 Server closes connection
o HTTP is a stateless protocol.
HTTP Response Data
 A blank line follows the response header and the data follows
 No upper limit on data size .
 HTTP/1.0
 Server typically closes connection after completing a transaction.
 HTTP/1.1
 Server keeps the connection open by default, across transactions.

HTTP version 1.1

 Current standard and widely used.

 Improvements over HTTP 1.0

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  Requires host identification.
 Allows multi-homed servers
 More than one domain living on same server.
 Default support for persistent connections.
 Multiple transactions over a single connection.
 Support for content negotiation.
 Decides on the best among the available representations
 Server –driven or browser-driven.
 Browsers can request part of document.
 Specify the bytes using range header.
 Browser can ask for more than one range
 Continue interrupted downloads
 Range bytes =1200-3500
 Efficient caching support
 A document caching model that allows both the server and the client to control
the level of cachablity and update condition and requirement.
 HTTP 1.1 requires several extra things from both clients and servers.
 Mandatory to know these if one is trying to write a HTTP client or server.
 Secure HTTP is a secure message-oriented communications protocol designed for use in
conjunction with HTTP. It is designed to coexist with HTTP's messaging model and to be easily
integrated with HTTP applications.
 Secure HTTP provides a variety of security mechanisms to HTTP client and servers, providing the
security service options appropriate to the wide range of potential end uses possible for the
World-Wide Web.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), which secures communication
between the browser client and the IIS server, uses a certificate and a public key to encrypt the
data that is transferred over the internet.
What is a URL?
 They are the mechanism by which documents are addressed in the www.
 A URL contains the following:
 Name of the site containing the resource.
 The type of service to be used to access the resource(ftp,http,etc)
 The port number of the service
 Location of the resource (path name) in the server.
 URLs specify internet addresses.
 General format for URL:
 Scheme://address:port/path/filename
 Example
 http://www.xyz.edu:2345/home/rose.jpg
 http://www.rediff.com/news/ab1.html

Client –server Model

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  Standard model for developing network applications.
 Notion of client and server.
 A server is a process that is offering some service
 A client is a process that is requesting the service.
 Server or client may be running on different machines.
 Server waits for requests from client(s).
 Typical scenario:
 The server process starts on some computer system.
 Initializes itself, then goes to sleep waiting for a client request.
 A client process starts, either on the same system or on some other system.
 Sends a request to the server.
 When the server process has finished providing its service to the client ,the server goes
back to sleep ,waiting for the next client request to arrive.
 The process repeats
 Roles of the client and the server processes are asymmetric.

Fig: Client-server architecture

 Two types of servers:
 Iterative servers
 Concurrent servers

Iterative servers

 Used when the server process knows in advance how long it takes to handle each request and it
handles each request itself.
 Single copy of server runs at all times.
 A client may have to wait if the server is busy.

Concurrent servers

 Used when the amount of work required handling a request is unknown; the server starts
another process to handle each request.
 A copy of the server caters to a client’s request in a dedicated fashion
 As many copies of server as there are client requests.
What is DNS?

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  The global database system for internet addressing ,mail and other information.
 Much easier to use and memorize
 Concept of domains and sub-domains.
 Domain management is distributed.
 DNS servers translate domain names to IP addresses.

Top Level Domains

 .com –commercial
 .org-non profit
 .net –network service provider
 .edu-education
 .in-indian
 .it-italian
 What is domain?
A set of computers related by either their geographic location ,or the way they function

Web Protocols
 A network protocol is the set of rules governing a conversation between a client and a server
 Standard set of rules that governs how computers communicate with each other, There are
many protocols i.e. SMTP, FTP, HTTP
 HTTP is the underlying protocol used to transmit information over the Web
 The Web supports several Internet protocols aside from HTTP such as SMTP, FTP, allowing
access to huge collection of information and services
 FTP :(File transfer protocol) - One of the most oldest and probably the most popular protocol to
be used to move files on the Internet.
 SMTP: (the e-mail message protocol) - A protocol to allow two users to communicate through
e-mail messages over the Internet. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions is an Internet
standard that extends the format of email to support
Web page
What is a Web page?
 Electronic document that typically contains several types of information accessible via the World
Wide Web
 Set of information created, and organized, using HTML and/or other web page authoring and
development tools
 Interpreted and displayed on the screen according to the instructions of the web page authoring
tool
How web page works
 Sample web page and its source.
 The source contains the instructions that define the contents, layout, and structure of a web
page.

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  The instructions are written in HTML or another web authoring tool used in creating the page.
 The browser uses these instructions to interpret and display the web page on the screen.
Web site
What is a web site?
 A collection of related web pages of a certain individual, group, or organization, connected
through a system of hyperlinks, hosted in a particular domain
 Can be a single web page that contains links to related information located on several web sites
Home page
What is a home page?
 The main page of a web site that typically serves as an index or table of contents to other web
pages
 Usually the first web page or the welcome page the users see when they visit a web site

Web content validation

 Validation is the process of checking data against a standard or requirement. The term is commonly
used when:
 Quality assuring a webpage at a technical level (code validation), or
 Checking the information entered by a person when sending information or using an
online service (form validation).
 Webpage validation involves checking the code used to create a webpage (markup
 A number of the language used to write webpage are formalized by W3C.
 Languages commonly used to write (author) webpages include:
 Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
 Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML)
 Extensible Markup Language (XML)
 Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)

Why validate?
 Validation provides an independent means of quality assuring webpage code; valid code is less likely to
be ‘misunderstood’ by programs that are used to view webpages (web browsers).
 As use of the web evolves, and the features websites provide become more sophisticated, the integrity
of the underlying code becomes more important—invalid code may ‘break’ a webpage.
 Valid code is easier to reinterpret and transform; new methods of accessing the web, such as mobile
phones, benefit from different ‘views’ of webpage content; creating alternative views is easier when the
underlying markup is standardized.
 For a webpage to be validated:
 The validation program must be able to link to the webpage.

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  The webpage include a document-type declaration (DTD) that identifies the language used to
markup content; if a DTD is not provided, the validator may ‘guess’ the language based on the
markup used in the webpage.
 The validation process:

1. The author enters the address (URL) of the webpage to be validated.

2. A computer program checks that the webpage code conforms to the declared language.
3. If the code does not conform to the language specification (or is non-compliant), a report
identifies potential errors.
4. The author corrects the code, and revalidates the webpage until no errors are found.
Website evaluation
 It is important to know how to evaluate Web sites to determine if the information is reliable.
 A list of topics to cover when evaluating a website such as:
 Readability: Website readability is often under-rated, but is an important part of web
design. There are three aspects to readability that should be considered when developing a
website.
 Ease of Comprehension: is the content easy to understand? It relates to the way
the text is laid out
 Legibility: how easy is it to read the website?It is an area where websites are
improving dramatically.
 Reading Enjoyment: will users enjoy the website? This is a balance between the
quality of design and content.
 Layout:
 Web page layout is very important to make your website look good.
 Design your webpage layout very carefully.
 Most websites have put their content in multiple columns (formatted like a
magazine or newspaper).
 Color: Selecting a color scheme for a given website design project is not always easy.
Sometimes the product or service will help to determine the base or main color, but where
to go from there is usually a matter for the designer's imagination and inspiration.
 Trust: Internet surfing requires a great deal of caution. Millions of websites exist offering
countless products, services and information, but sometimes it can be difficult to figure out
which of these websites truly live up to their claims. By looking for common red flags, you
can make educated decisions about the types of websites you visit and support, and possibly
save yourself from viruses, spyware, scams and other types of Internet fraud.

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 CHAPTER -2

 Hyper Text Markup Language.

 Constitutes a collection of platform independent styles that define the various
components of a web document.
 Style indicated by markup tags.
 What is HTML really?
 The HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
 Plain-text documents can be created using any text editor.
 WYSIWYG editors are also available.
 The HTML files generally have an extension as ".html"
 The HTML is understood by web browser
 What is a markup language?
 In a markup language, markup tags are used to describe contents.
 One where we can embed special tags or formatting commands in the text.
 To describe how the text should be displayed /printed.
 HTML is a markup language
 The HTML is a markup language that is used to create web pages
 Special formatting codes (called tags) to adjust fonts ,create bulleted lists, create
forms,display images ,create tables, etc.

HTML Editor
 You can use a notepad or notepad++ but have another editor
 Multi-platform HTML WYSIWYG Editors are Dreamweaver,KompoZer and Amaya.

HTML Tags
 The left and right angle bracket are used to enclose all special instructions,called tags
 Two classes of tags
 Those which appear in pairs
o <i>good morning</i>
 Those which appear individually.
o <img src=”baby.jpg”>
 Browsers interpret the tags to display a HTML page in properly formatted form.
 Most of the tags belong to the first category.
 <tag name>…directives…</tag name>
 Tags are case insensitive
 <HEAD>,<Head> and<head> are all equivalent
 Tags may be nested
 <html><head>...</head><body>…</body></html>
 Most browsers have a VIEW SOURCE menu option.
 The HTML version of the page can be displayed.

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  Some tags can have one or more named attribute to define some additional characteristics of
the tag.
 Browsers ignore all extra spaces and carriage returns within a HTML document
 Why?
 Browsers have to reformat the document to fit in the current display area.
 It is good practice to use white spaces in a HTML document.
 Improves readability
 Unrecognized tags
 Browsers normally ignore tags it does not recognize.
 Comment lines
 Comments are included between <!...and….!>
 Comments cannot be nested
HTML Document Structure
 A HTML document consists of two major portions:
 Head
 Contains information about the document ,like the title and
“meta”data describing the content.
 Body
 Contains the actual matter of the document
 Gets displayed within the browser window

Example : first.html
Create a simple web page
<html><head>
<title> title of the document</title>
</head>
<body bgcolor=”blue”>
This is the content of the document
</body>
</html>
Explanation:
 The HTML page is enclosed between <html> and </html>.
 The visible contents of the page are enclosed between <body> and </body>
 The tags h1 and p are used to display heading and paragraph respectively.
Example:
<html>, <head>, <body>, <p>, <h1> ... etc
An HTML element always represent with start tag and end tag.
Syntax :
<starttag>content</endtag>
An HTML element having starting tag and ending tag

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