Rural21

No. 2/2014
Volume 48
ISSN 1866-8011
D 20506 F

The International Journal for Rural Development

a r m i ng
m il y F
Fa
ling
J. Boeth

www.rural21.com
Photo:
Editorial

Dear Reader,
when we decided to have the latest edition of our jour- course, that natural resources are used in a sustainable and
nal report on the International Year of Family Farming, as responsible manner.
the United Nations declared 2014, the first question to arise
was what the term actually referred to. After all, having been Our “International Platform” section also addresses the
shaped by our rationally-based German education, and conservation of natural resources and the use of potentials.
together with the claim to a scientific approach, we definitely First of all, our example from the Mekong River Basin shows
needed some sort of category, a pigeon-hole, if you like, that how difficult it is for communities to share the valuable
we can put the topic into for the time being and set out from resource of water without any of the riparian residents being
to meticulously unravel it. Of course FAO Director General put at a disadvantage and human activities having a negative
José Graziano da Silva has no difficulty in presenting us the impact on watersheds (p. 32).
definition that his organisation has opted for, clearly demon-
strating at the same time that family farming is anything but Of course prevention is always better than cure, but often it
a category for pigeon-holing. is simply too late for the former. Accelerating industrialisation,
intensified exploitation of mineral resources, irrigation with
Of course all family farms do share common characteris- polluted water, the overuse of fertiliser and chemicals are just a
tics. Not only is the farming family the chief source of labour, few of the reasons for a major proportion of usable land being
but it also bears full responsibility for all business decisions affected by severe soil degradation. Elaborate remediation
(which means that it also incurs the full risk that such deci- projects are to help repair damage to the natural landscapes
sions entail). Usually, the farm is the family’s home, too, and to initiate ecosystem recovery (p. 38).
and it performs not only an economic but also a social and
cultural role. And it is passed on from one generation to the Using biogas as a source of energy requires a relatively
next, so that one can assume that business decisions are small effort, but it offers a wide range of advantages. Together
taken with a view to long-term viability and sustainability. with partners in Kenya, the International Fund for Agricultural
But this is just about it in terms of common features. Neither Development has supported a system that is flexible, easy to
the size of the farms nor the type of production they perform handle and transportable. Decreases in deforestation thanks
plays a role. A 60-hectare dairy farm in Northern Germany to reduced firewood consumption, a reduced incidence of
may belong to them just as much as a small-scale fisher in respiratory diseases and a lower workload for women are just
the Philippines or a 200-hectare cattle-breeding farm in the a few of the system’s benefits (p. 35).
Argentinian Pampa.
The last project we present has set itself the task of helping
What makes family farms so important, also for the United small sorghum farmers in the arid and semi-arid regions of
Nations, is that they are the main producers of food consumed Kenya and Tanzania increase production and productivity and
locally in both developed and developing countries. There are linking them to markets (p. 40). Thanks to an intensive integra-
around 525 million family farmers, and they account for well tion of their farms in the sorghum value chain including access
over half of all agricultural production. Thus they play a crucial to improved seed and fertilisers,
role in maintaining global food security. To raise awareness of service provision and capacity
this significance, but also to show governments and society building, sorghum sales by the
what they have to do to support family farms in performing 2,500 farmers taking part in the
this important role is the notion behind the United Nations’ pilot project have risen by 130
proclaiming the International Year of Family Farming. We have per cent in a single year.
asked representatives of international organisations, science,
agricultural associations and development co-operation and, We wish you inspiring read-
last but not least, a family farmer himself to show us where they ing!
believe the strengths of the family farming model lie and what,
from their point of view, needs to be done for family farms to
take full advantage of their potential – all of this provided, of

Partner institutions of Rural 21:

2 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 In this issue

News
4 Climate protection in agriculture – opportunity or risk for
smallholder farming?

5 IFPRI 2020 Conference: Resilience for food and nutrition security

Focus: Family Farming

Photo: E. Zaumseil
6 “Family farms are key to feeding the world” –
Interview with FAO Director-General José Graziano da Silva

8 More than just a business

11 What is so special about family farms?

14 Consolidating achievements and addressing new challenges

related to family farming in the Mercosur

17 Women – the untapped potential for food security

Photo: KfW-Photoarchiv
20 “We have inherited not only a piece of land, but also the
responsibility to turn it into a home”

23 Machinery rings – a mechanisation concept for African farmers?

24 Agricultural biodiversity: the foundation of resilient family farms

27 RISE – Measuring sustainability in agriculture

Opinion
29 Family farming – a model with a future?

International Platform
Photo: IFAD

32 Integrated Watershed Management –

an approach with a number of stumbling-blocks

35 FlexiBiogas – a climate change adaptation and mitigation technology

38 Rebuilding soil natural capital – an example from Kuwait

40 Boosting commercial sorghum production and marketing

with the “aggregator model”

Scientific World
Photo: Africa Harvest

43 Increasing CO2 may threaten human nutrition /

On the trail of cassava frog skin disease

Rural 21 – 02/2014 3
News · Events

Climate protection in agriculture – a risk for smallholders?

Taking the reduction of greenhouse developing countries may adopt agri- projects such as the World Bank’s Kenya
gas (GHGs) emissions from agriculture culture in their Nationally Appropriate Agricultural Carbon Project show that
into the United Nations Framework Mitigation Actions (NAMA). such measures are unsuitable for small-
Convention on Climate Change (UNF- holder agriculture. The initial invest-
CCC) has been discussed since roughly So far, the technical negotiations in ments are too high, while the long-term
2009. It is undisputed that numer- a UNFCCC subsidiary body have made returns from small areas are too low.
ous agricultural activities contribute only slow progress. Also, developing Moreover, it can be expected that com-
both to reducing emissions and to an countries are divided on the issue, petition for land for various uses and the
additional sequestration of carbon in with some of them fearing commit- value of fertile land are going to increase
the soil as well as enhancing produc- ting themselves to emission reductions further. Smallholders who often enough
tivity and the capacity to adapt to the and seeking to establish adaptation as do not have formal tenure or land-use
impacts of climate change. However, a focal issue whereas others are hoping rights are set to be the losers from such
integration in the international climate for additional finance for which they are a development.
process bears a number of risks, in par- willing to accept focusing on climate
ticular for smallholders in developing protection and adaptation on a par. And Both events also discussed the extent
countries. This issue was debated by as yet, it is unclear how the topic could to which other international organisa-
the German Development Institute, be addressed in a future global climate tions were addressing the issue. Here,
Misereor and Bread for the World during agreement. What also makes the debate special attention was given to the Food
a side event at the climate negotiations so difficult is that this aspect is often and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
in Bonn, Germany, early in June 2014. associated with the issue of including it which is not only actively participat-
The event was a follow-up to a German in carbon market mechanisms. ing in the UNFCCC process but is also
expert workshop in February that had contributing its own activities to the
been attended by representatives from agriculture and climate change inter-
politics, science and civil society. n The role of carbon markets face e.g. with the Committee on World
Food Security (CFS) and the Mitigation
Adapting to climate change in agri- The integration of agriculture in of Climate Change in Agriculture Pro-
culture is financed by the UNFCCC via international carbon markets is to pro- gramme (MICCA).
a wide range of funds. In spite of its rel- vide farmers with an incentive to reduce
evance for climate protection, the agri- emissions while simultaneously gen-
cultural sector is not explicitly covered erating income to finance adaptation n Opportunities and risks
within individual strands of negotiation. measures. The buyer can use the certi-
Nevertheless, emissions from agricul- fied reduced amount of GHGs to meet In spite of the existing synergies
ture are already referred to in many his or her reduction commitments. The between adaptation and mitigation in
mechanisms. For example, in pilot events showed that environmental and the agricultural sector, there is an overall
measures of the REDD+ mechanism development organisations view the risk that too strong a focus on mitigation
(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation additional valuation of cropland by the aspects could mean that crucial small-
and Forest Degradation), emissions in process sceptically. Financing adapta- holder issues will no longer be sufficiently
developing countries originating from tion measures must not be dependent considered, especially in developing
the transformation of forests into crop- on volatile carbon markets and proof countries. However, climate protection
land are to be reduced, too. In addition, of climate protection. In addition, pilot could lose out, too, for carbon sequestra-
tion in the soil is always only temporary.
In certain circumstances, changes in soil
management practices can once again
release the carbon stored. Furthermore,
measuring such storage is a very elabo-
rate and cost-intensive process if inac-
Photo: J. Boethling

Around ten to twelve per cent

of anthropogenic greenhouse
gas emissions (GHGs) comes directly
from agricultural activities.

4 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 News · Events
curacy is to be reduced to a minimum. Mounsey of the EU Commission stressed, reductions should not be solely on food
Thus, there is always a risk of emission “The farmer has to be in the middle.” production; lifestyles and eating hab-
reductions being accounted that do not Within the international climate nego- its ought to be changed as well, while
exist in reality or that are prematurely tiations, integrated approaches ought to in developing countries, post-harvest
re-released into the atmosphere. In addi- be pursued to an increasing degree. At losses need to be reduced.
tion, scarce financial resources are used the same time, it has to be remembered
to calculate emission reductions instead that both the right to food and support- The processes that will be under-
of for supporting food security. ing adaptation represent rights that must way in and outside the UNFCCC over
not be tied to proof of climate protection. the next few years require critical sup-
Strategies for climate protection, It is therefore all the more important that port by civil society actors. There is a
adaptation and rural development have international human rights standards need for independent monitoring of
to be designed coherently. The two and instruments such as the Voluntary agricultural projects and their impacts
events showed the need for promoting Guidelines to support the progressive on the rural population. Here, lessons
cross-sector and cross-policy thinking realisation of the right to adequate food learnt by the FAO’s CFS can be of use.
and acting, both between agricultural in the context of national food security Unlike in the climate negotiations,
and climate policies and within climate (2004) or the Voluntary Guidelines on civil society is involved in the pro-
policy itself. While investments in agri- the Responsible Governance of Tenure cesses here.
culture are essential, they ought to be of Land, Fisheries and Forests (2012) are
provided above all via public finance. applied under the UNFCCC. Function- Marcus Kaplan, German Develop-
This can strengthen smallholder and ing complaints mechanisms need to be ment Institute/Deutsches Institut
sustainable agriculture, which makes the established, too. für Entwicklungspolitik – DIE;
chief contribution to food security in the [email protected];
developing countries and is usually not In the industrialised and emerg- Anika Schroeder, Misereor;
reached by the private sector. As Jerome ing economies, the focus in emission Eike Zaumseil, Bread for the World

No food and nutrition security without resilience

The need to include the issue of resilience of individuals, households, was noticeable throughout the confer-
resilience in the political post-2015 communities or bigger systems. For ence to include the issue of resilience and
agenda was repeatedly stressed by instance, access to markets would the challenge of enhancing resilience
the more than 800 participants of this expose smallholders to price spikes, of especially the poor in the political
year’s International Policy Research which might cause shocks to them. post-2015 agenda setting. By enhanc-
Institute’s (IFPRI) 2020 Conference On the other hand, access to mar- ing resilience, all potential Sustainable
in Addis Ababa/Ethiopia in mid-May kets could also enhance resilience of Development Goals could be made
2014. General issues raised throughout smallholders by selling surplus pro- more effective. However, building and
the conference included: duction or buying food should the enhancing resilience was an instrument
1) The importance of building resilience need arise. and an issue of investment contributing
for development. There would not be 4) The need to lower risks of individu- to the improvement of food and nutri-
any significant achievement of food als and groups to reduce their expo- tion security rather than a goal of sus-
and nutrition security at the various sure to shocks. In this respect, Simon tainable development in itself. Hence,
levels if the chronicle vulnerability Maxwell of the Overseas Develop- resilience should not become the next
and risks of especially the poor were ment Institute in the UK suggested a buzzword under which everybody in
not tackled. stress test for the food systems. In a policy, research and development would
2) The need for a change of perspective similar manner to the stress tests of try to include aspects of their work, thus
in the resilience discussion and con- banks, the food systems needed to overburdening the concept and render-
cepts. The individuals and communi- be checked on and aligned with the ing it no longer operational.
ties were not only victims to shocks ability to react to and buffer chronicle
but at any time, they had a potential stress and sudden shocks. Detlef Virchow, GlobalHort, Bonn,
for reaction that could be targeted Germany; [email protected]
and supported. All in all, as Joachim von Braun from
3) The very site- and situation-specific the Center for Development Research in For a more comprehensive version
nature of building or strengthening Germany summarised, a collective will of the article, see: ➤ www.rural21.com

Rural 21 – 02/2014 5
Focus

“Family farms are key to feeding the world”

José Graziano da Silva, Director-General of the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), on the role of family farms for global food security, the need
for sound rural development stategies and the responsibility of governments, the
private sector and civil society.

n Mr. da Silva, why did the United call to governments, civil society, the instance, are in need of clear criteria so
Nations declare 2014 the Inter­ academic community and the private that they can gather adequate statis-
national Year of Family Farming? sector to unite their forces, increase tics on the economic and demographic
What is this meant to achieve? their understanding of the potential dimensions of family farming in order
and challenges faced by family farm- to enhance pro-family farming policy
The declaration of the Interna- ers, and take concrete action. initiatives. Furthermore, concerns are
tional Year of Family Farming reflects being voiced over the ‘invisibility’ of
a growing global consensus that fam- n How does the United Nations women’s participation in agricultural
ily farming is key to feeding a global define ‘family farms’? activities, income and tenure, or how to
population that is expected to reach adequately capture the commonalities
more than nine billion people by 2050. Most family farms are small farms – and diversities of family farms operating
There are over 500 million family farms in fact the vast majority of the world’s in various agro-ecological regions and
spread across the planet, and they are farms are smaller than two hec- social, economic and cultural contexts.
responsible for at least 56 per cent of tares. However, family farmers are an FAO is addressing these demands with
agricultural production world-wide. In extremely diverse group, ranging from the aim to deliver criteria and improved
many regions, they are the main pro- smallholders to large farm owners, knowledge about family farming on a
ducers of the food we eat every day. At indigenous peoples, fisherfolk, forest permanent basis.
the same time, around 842 million peo- farmers, pastoralists and many others.
ple around the world are chronically n Does family farming represent a
hungry because they cannot afford At FAO, we have adopted a definition model for the future of all regions
to eat adequately. Over 70 per cent to facilitate policy dialogue throughout throughout the world?
of the food insecure population live in 2014 which describes family farms as all
rural areas of Africa, Asia, Latin America family-based agricultural activities. That Family farmers are the main produc-
and the Near East. Many of them are includes all agricultural, forestry, fisher- ers of food consumed locally in both
family farmers, especially subsistence ies, pastoral and aquaculture produc- developed and developing countries.
farmers, with limited access to natural tion which is managed and operated They also work a significant portion
resources, finance, credit and technol- by a family, and is predominantly reli- of the world’s farmland in all world
ogy. These conditions prevent them ant on family labour, including by both regions: 85 per cent in Asia, 62 per cent
from fulfilling their true potential. women and men. in Africa, 83 per cent in North and Cen-
tral America, 68 per cent in Europe and
However, with an enabling policy I think this definition has proven 18 per cent in South America. There
environment, we know that family valid as a starting point for facilitating are, however, different models of family
farmers can boost productivity and policy dialogue so far that is allowing us farming in different regions. For exam-
foster sustainable local production to use the International Year of Family ple, family farms are the main source of
and consumption circuits which have Farming to provide momentum for a rice production in Asia. In the United
the potential not only to fight hunger, qualitative step forward for policy and States, family farmers grow 84 per cent
which is our main objective, but also analytical purposes. This is being done, of all produce, working 78 per cent of
to boost local markets while sustain- for example, by achieving common all farmland and making 230 billion US
ably managing natural resources. The international criteria to facilitate defini- dollars in sales each year. In Brazil, fam-
International Year was initiated with tions and typologies of family farming ily farmers working on less than 25 per
the understanding that it will create a at country and regional level. This step cent of the land provide 83 per cent of
unique opportunity to develop means would facilitate the identification of cassava, 70 per cent of beans and 46 per
for prosperous and sustainable agri- effective ways to support family farm- cent of maize, and they account for 38
culture based on family farms. It is a ing in its diversity. Governments, for per cent of the agribusiness value chain.

6 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
José Graziano da Silva, just an agricultural one, will meet this
Director-General of the United challenge. Access to adequate goods,
Nations Food and Agriculture services, job opportunities and leisure
Organization (FAO)
opportunities would convince more
youth to stay closer to the family farm.
concrete action is the answer.
In this regard, the Voluntary n What do you expect of the national
Guidelines on the Responsible governments? And what should
Governance of Tenure of Land, the international community do?
Fisheries and Forests endorsed
in 2012 by the Members of Focusing on national policies for agri-

Photo: FAO
the Committee on World Food cultural and rural development is of the
Security (CFS) sets an impor- utmost importance. Facilitating access to
tant precedent: internationally land, water and other natural resources
And family farmers in Fiji provide 84 per agreed-on guidance on what needs to and implementing public policies with
cent of yam, rice, manioc, maize and be done to ensure that the use of natu- regard to credit, technical assistance,
bean production, working on 47.4 per ral resources support our food security insurance, market access, public pur-
cent of the land. goals. FAO played an important role in chases and appropriate technologies are
the debate that led to the approval of key actions to be implemented by the
These numbers speak for themselves. these guidelines and involved govern- governments. They need to ensure that
If we want to feed over nine billion peo- ments, private sector and civil society this contribution is fully recognised by
ple in 2050, family farming needs to be organisations among other actors, and establishing platforms for dialogue with
part of the equation. Neither is there any we are working with dozens of countries family farmers’ organisations, which are
doubt that an increase in productivity for to ensure their adequate implementa- necessary to generate consensus and to
poor small-scale family farmers will result tion. The Principles on Responsible Agri- build and implement targeted, effective
in better food security. One important cultural Investment, which are currently policies and result in tangible improve-
aspect to stress is that we are obliged to being discussed in the CFS, will be an ments. Meanwhile, international co-
increase productivity while preserving important complement to the Volun- operation can be fundamental in chan-
natural resources and protecting biodi- tary Guidelines given the impact that nelling resources to support country-
versity. In this regard, one major asset investments may have – for better or for owned pro-family farming strategies,
of family farming is that it tends to run worse – on the food security of poor and and international agreements can be
crop-diversification-based agricultural developing countries. instrumental in enhancing these strate-
systems, which are essential for safe- gies. The combination of national strat-
guarding biodiversity and contributing I also want to stress that we need to egies, social dialogue and international
to healthier and more balanced diets. pay special attention to women and support form the enabling policy envi-
young farmers. Often, the important ronment that we need.
n What are the main challenges that role women play in family farming
family farms face world-wide is not recognised in terms of income n What will have changed in concrete
nowadays? And – as a consequence earned, asset ownership and succes- terms for family farmers by the end
– what kind of support do they sion. Men have more access to ser- of 2014? What are you hoping for?
need to be ready for the future? vices than women. There is a need for
information and awareness campaigns What we hope for by the end of the
Climate change is introducing a host about women in family farming to fill year is to have the current and poten-
of new challenges not just for family this gap. Another concern is that in tial contribution of family farming to
farms, but for the entire world agricul- many areas youth are losing interest food security recognised by all sectors
tural sector and for humanity in gen- in agriculture and instead are looking and supported by the development of
eral. The degradation of land and water for jobs in urban areas. Governments agricultural, environmental and social
resources and the loss of biodiversity are need to invest more in rural areas and in policies that enable sustainable fam-
already taking a toll on farming systems. agriculture. There is a need to develop ily farming. In the past, family farmers
Together with population increase, this programmes and projects that target have been considered a problem to be
has created enormous and compet- young farmers specifically and pro- solved, but we need to change that
ing pressures for different land uses. vide them with access to land, credit mindset so that they are seen as part of
I think that multi-stakeholder dialogue and technical knowledge. I think that the solution for global food security and
that builds consensus and facilitates a rural development strategy, and not sustainable development.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 7
Focus

More than just a business

Family farming has many different meanings to many different people. While such farms
come in all shape and sizes, one thing all practitioners agree on is that family farming
is more than a business – it’s a way of life. The following article shows what constitutes
this way of life, the challenges that family farms in Europe and throughout the world
face and why and how the European Union supports this type of enterprise.

The concept of family farming var- ber that this model dominates today’s gone quite a way down this path, but
ies according to culture, region and agricultural landscape: family farms the route is long. Regardless of the level
tradition. Diversity is inherent to the provide 70 per cent of world food pro- of economic development, targeted
model and consequently, there is no duction (FAO, 2013), employ a signifi- policies supporting family farms around
universal definition for family farming. cant workforce and are also a key driver the world are crucial to ensuring food
Nevertheless, there are some shared of rural development throughout the security, a resilient rural society and
principles that can define family farm- planet. social stability.
ing as agricultural, forestry, fisheries,
pastoral or aquaculture production that The International Year of Family
is managed and operated by a family n Common strengths and Farming (IYFF) showcases the added
and predominantly reliant on family common challenges value of family farming: its social func-
labour, including that of both women tion (maintaining the vitality of rural
and men. The family and the farm are Reducing poverty in developing areas), environmental benefits (such as
linked, co-evolve and combine eco- countries requires an increased produc- maintaining landscapes and soil fertility
nomic, environmental, reproductive, tion of staples by family farms. Whether for future generations) and its economic
social and cultural functions. Definitions this necessary growth is feasible and impact both in terms of food production
of family farming tend to ignore size sufficient will depend on the prevailing and employment.
criteria, especially if they refer to large political and economic environment,
geographic areas. This is because such and the ability of institutions to enable As family farms – of all sizes – look
farms vary greatly in size, and further- key factors such as the development and to survive and grow in the context of
more what is considered a small holding the application of appropriate agricul- globalisation and a changing world,
in one region may not be in another. tural techniques, the management of they face some perennial management
land and water access and the ability to challenges strongly associated with
Overall, family farming is more than maintain open markets, all in the con- this particular kind of family business,
just a business – it’s a way of life and text of ensuring the quality provision including the need for modernisation
one that is deeply associated with val- of public goods. Many countries have and innovation on the farm, prepar-
ues such as solidarity, continuity and
commitment.
The Munro family in Scotland.
While it is true that the majority of Diversity is inherent to the
family farmers are smallholders who family farm model.
remain highly vulnerable to poverty
and hunger, it is important to remem-

European Network for

Rural Development
Directorate-General for Agriculture
and Rural Development
Photo: R. Cheyne

European Commission
Brussels, Belgium
[email protected]

8 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
ing for succession and encouraging Promoting the timely
future generations to get involved, and effective transfer
and developing economic flexibility of farm ownership
and management
via farm-centred diversification and
responsibilities from one
pluriactivity. generation to the next is
crucial. The Romanian
farmer Gheorghe Bangala
n Closing the gender gap, and his son Madalin
encouraging the next prepare to milk the sheep.
generation

As the livelihood of farming fami- spective for their farm and

lies depends on the work carried out tend to enhance open-

Photo: A. Alex
by each family member, the survival of ness to farm innovation.
such farms is highly dependent on the
combined effort of both women and Promoting the timely
men. Rural societies are traditionally and effective transfer of
characterised by gender-specific roles, farm ownership and management tion can be that family farms are syn-
and in most cases, men are considered responsibilities from one generation to onymous with small-scale operations.
the head of the household involved in the next and facilitating greater access However, the reality is that in the EU,
decision-making, market exchanges to land for young people looking to family farms also dominate the largest
and handling finance. In many cul- enter farming for the first time is crucial. farm size class of 100 ha and larger, 60
tures, access to land and property is This holds particularly true for Europe, per cent of which are held by families.
determined by gender. When it is only where nine farmers out of ten are older
men who are entitled to inherit land, than 55 (EU Agricultural Economics Family farms in Europe also dem-
women are left in a vulnerable position Brief No 6). onstrate significant variability in terms
with no legal property rights and in a of the wide variety of activities they
co-dependent position (International engage in, the different resources they
Land Coalition, 2013). n A focus on Europe depend on, as well as their degree of
market integration, competitiveness,
There is a need to elevate women Family farming is the foundation and the share of labour they make use
from this secondary role and to make upon which agriculture has thrived of in order to run the farm.
their work in the rural economy more in Europe over the centuries. And it
visible, in order to move forward and remains – by a long way – the most
improve living conditions in rural areas. common model of farming operations n Policy support for
Public policies that protect women and in Europe today. Some 97 per cent of family farms
facilitate their access to land, resources, all farm holdings in the EU are held by
education and credit are considered a individual farmers. By and large, such The EU’s Common Agricultural Pol-
priority in the context of the family farm- farmers continue to own and man- icy (CAP) focuses strongly on meeting
ing and rural development agenda. For age land previously cultivated by their future challenges related to food, natu-
instance, many countries in Africa have ancestors, and this way cultural tradi- ral resources and territorial balance. It
started to reform policies and regula- tions and values are maintained. Farm- supports all types of agriculture in the
tions on rural land to the benefit of ers and their families typically carry EU, including the rich diversity found
women and vulnerable groups (FAO, out most of the farm work themselves, in the family farming sector. While it is
2012). derive the majority of their income not possible here to detail the full range
from farming, and live on or close to of support provided by the recently
Acknowledging that men and the farm. reformed CAP, it is worth highlight-
women of all ages are equal actors and ing some of the policy areas which are
can shape the future development of In terms of size, family-run farms of particular relevance to family farm-
family farms is vital to the survival of sus- cover around 69 per cent of the EU’s ing. These include recognition of the
tainable family farms. Young people in agricultural land, and their average size value of the environmental services
particular play a pivotal role in improv- amounts to 10 hectares (ha). As cor- that family farms typically provide, the
ing the livelihoods of family farms: they porate farms are, on average 15 times efforts to boost farm competitiveness
provide the family with a long-term per- larger (152 ha), a common mispercep- and economic diversity and the sup-

Rural 21 – 02/2014 9
Focus
Clotilde Martins and her husband
(Portugal) milking their goats.
The survival of family farms is highly
dependent on the combined effort of both
women and men.

supply chain between the farmer and

the final customer. Local food supply
chains also make it easier for customers
to identify the origin of their purchases,
strengthen the relationship between
consumers and local farmers and boost
regional identity. Certain CAP measures
help family farmers to sell their prod-
ucts directly to consumers or at least to
become involved in short supply chains,

Photo: F. Seco
and to better integrate family farms into
distribution channels by providing sup-
port for quality schemes, adding value
to agricultural products and promotion,
port for the continuity of the European ing profitability and continued rural for example through farmers markets,
family farming model in the future, depopulation. Payments under the sec- box delivery schemes or food festivals.
through schemes to encourage genera- ond pillar of the CAP have contributed
tion renewal. to halting land abandonment in such Mixed farming and diversification
areas since 1975. Agri-environment also help to maximise the utilisation of
Innovation, climate and environment payments co-financed by the European a farm’s assets to improve production,
actions, and sustainable resource man- Agricultural Fund for Rural Develop- efficiency and profitability. Opportu-
agement are the cross-cutting priori- ment have also allowed family farms nities to enhance family farm income
ties at the centre of rural development to continue to support climate change can arise from career, family and life
programmes throughout the EU. Fund- adaptation and mitigation. In addition, experiences as well. Social farming,
ing for ‘greening’ activities (including the combination of agri-environmental for example, is a special form of on-
organic farming and agri-environment- commitments with the development of farm diversification that enhances job
climate support), new entrants/young rural tourism and other businesses (e.g. opportunities, in particular for women
farmers, innovation, smallholdings and local food products) has often helped to and young people. Very often, a family
co-operation can be granted under the maintain highly valuable environmental member not previously involved in the
rural development programmes and and cultural landscapes, while also gen- farm business joins and makes use of
combined with other public funding, erating economic benefits. farm facilities and livestock to develop
like direct payments to active farmers. and offer new services related to sec-
tors such as education, welfare and
n Innovation and health. Such initiatives can obtain CAP
n Delivering environmental competitiveness funds through the support allocated for
services the creation and development of new
Family farms involvement in innova- businesses.
One defining characteristic of family tive projects supported by the CAP is
farm management is its clear focus on expected to be high, in line with their
providing a legacy for future genera- proven capacity to adapt their tradi-
tions and the so-called second pillar of tional businesses to prevailing external The article is based on the EU Rural
Review – Issue 17, published by the
the CAP (rural development policy) sup- conditions, for example by focusing on
European Network for Rural Develop-
ports them in maintaining and develop- high-quality food production and par-
ment. The publication is available
ing sustainable land use. For example, ticipating in short food supply chains.
in English, French, German, Italian,
low-input agricultural systems are often Polish, and Spanish.
maintained by family farms in uplands One way to significantly increase
For details and a list of references, see
and in other areas with natural con- farm profitability is to reduce the num-
➤ www.rural21.com
straints, which are threatened by declin- ber of businesses participating in the

10 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus

What is so special about

family farms?
Family farms are especially well suited to meet the challenges of labour organisation in
agriculture. In early stages of development, they play a particularly important role in creating
productive employment for the major share of the population. Moreover, they have strong
incentives to use their resources sustainably so as to pass them on to future generations.
Yet, family farms should not be romanticised. Often, they only survive by working longer
hours and accepting lower incomes than people employed in other sectors of the economy.

Farming requires three main factors n The socio-cultural dimension which may interfere with school attend-
of production: land, labour and capital. ance. Socio-cultural factors also influ-
We can distinguish different organisa- Socio-cultural factors play an impor- ence how land is bestowed to the chil-
tional forms of agricultural production tant role for family farms. They influ- dren. In some societies, land is equally
according to the question: Who owns ence the gender division of labour, i.e. distributed among the children, while in
the land and the capital, and who sup- the rules on what activities are carried others, only one child inherits the farm.
plies the labour? The most important out by male vs. female family members. In many developing societies, women
feature of the family farm is the family While taking care of the children and are only able to access it through male
organisation of labour. According to house-keeping are almost universally family members (see also article on
the definition presented by FAO Direc- the tasks of women, the rules for agricul- pages 17–19).
tor-General Graziano da Silva (p. 6), a tural activities differ widely across socie-
family farm is “managed and operated ties. In many African societies, women The prospect of passing on the farm
by a family and predominantly reli- cultivate their own fields. In other parts to the next generation also creates
ant on family labour, including that of of the world, women carry out specific incentives to keep the farm in good con-
both women and men”. Family farms tasks on jointly cultivated fields, such dition, e.g. by investing in soil fertility.
do not necessarily own the land that as transplanting rice or weeding, while However, this does not imply that family
they cultivate. They may rent it under male family members are in charge farms are always managed sustainably.
different land tenure arrangements. In of other activities, such as ploughing.
developing countries, family farms are Children often have specific agricultural In many African societies, children have
often operated under share cropping tasks, as well, such as herding livestock, their own agricultural tasks, as herding
arrangements, where they have to give livestock.
a share of the farm output to the land
owner. In early stages of development,
family farm capital is limited, consist-
ing mostly of animals and agricultural
tools. In industrialised societies, fam-
ily farms typically operate with high
capital inputs in form of machinery and
buildings and own these capital assets,
even though they rely on bank financ-
ing to acquire them.

Regina Birner
Chair of Social and Institutional Change
Photo: R. Birner

in Agricultural Development
University of Hohenheim/Germany
[email protected]

Rural 21 – 02/2014 11
Focus
Among poor family farms, sustainable stimulated unprecedented agricultural types of corporations, are a more suc-
natural resource management is often growth, an indication of the compara- cessful type. In developing countries,
hampered by the high labour demand tive advantage of the family farm vis-à- this kind of agricultural organisation has
for techniques such as establishing con- vis the producer co-operative. In fact, been prevalent in the plantation sector
tour bounds and using manure, and by there are few examples in the world since colonial times. In some of former
a lack of access to inputs such as inor- where producer co-operatives have socialist and communist countries,
ganic fertiliser. been successful. Those exceptions are large-scale private holdings cultivating
linked to special conditions, as in case up to hundreds of thousands of hectares
of the Kibbutzim, which are based on emerged during the transformation
n A look at other types of religious principles and emerged within process, e.g. in Russia.
agricultural production the movement that aimed to create the
state of Israel. In developing countries, large-scale
Family farms can be distinguished corporations have come to play an
from other forms of agricultural organ- Family farms can also be distin- increasing role in recent years due to
isation, most notably producer co- guished from farm enterprises that the large-scale acquisition of land, espe-
operatives and companies that use mainly use hired labour. These opera- cially in sub-Saharan Africa. Such “land
predominantly hired labour. Producer tions may still be owned and managed grabbing” by large-scale farms has led
co-operatives are a type of organisa- by a family. In this case, it is ultimately to the involuntary displacement of fam-
tion that was widespread in the former a matter of definition to decide what ily farms from their land. Several inter-
socialist and communist countries. The percentage of the farm labour has to national initiatives, e.g. by the Commit-
land is owned by the families who form be supplied by family members to still tee on World Food Security (CFS), are
the co-operative, and they also supply classify the operation as a family farm. addressing this challenge.
the labour for the farm operations, but One well-known historical example of
the management of the producer co- large-scale owner-managed farms that
operative is centralised. This arrange- use mostly hired labour is the “Junker” n Why family farms remain
ment essentially turns the cooperative estate in Prussia. Similar types of farm dominant
members into agricultural labourers. organisations were also established
Producer co-operatives have to be dis- under colonialism in a range of devel- Although family farms are not the
tinguished from service co-operatives, oping countries, e.g. in Southern Africa. only way to organise agricultural pro-
which are formed by family farms, for These farms are typically characterised duction, they are by far the most wide-
example, to access inputs or financial by relatively high levels of productivity. spread type, both in the developing and
services together, or to market farm out- in the industrialised world. And family
put jointly, as in dairy co-operatives. In Another organisational type to be farms prevail in all industrialised socie-
contrast to the producer co-operative, distinguished from the family farm and ties where they have not been abolished
the service co-operative only deals with from the owner-managed farm using for ideological reasons, as in the former
up-stream and downstream activities of hired labour ist the corporation which socialist and communist countries. This
farming, while the management of on- uses both hired labour and hired man- indicates that, except for special cases
farm production remains the respon- agement and relies on various forms such as plantation crops, family farms
sibility of the individual farm families. of capital and land ownership. In the have a comparative advantage vis-à-vis
case of state farms, land and capital are other forms of agricultural organisation.
In the former socialist and commu- owned by the state, and they are man- Why this is the case has been debated
nist countries, producer co-operatives aged by state agencies. They were also for a long time. In 1899, Karl Kautsky
were created by force. In some develop- common in former socialist and com- published a famous book entitled “The
ing countries, governments also made munist countries, and have suffered Agrarian Question”, in which he argued
efforts to create producer co-operatives, from similar problems as the producer that family farms survive in the course
for example, after the land reform in co-operatives. Some countries in sub- of industrialisation because they are
Peru. Overall, producer co-operatives Saharan Africa promoted large-scale able to work longer hours and accept
have turned out not to be successful. mechanised farming on state farms, for a lower income than farms that rely on
Starting in the late 1970s, the gov- example, in Sudan, Tanzania and Nige- hired labour. This ability of “overwork”
ernment of China replaced the pro- ria. These operations turned out not to and “underconsumption” is indeed a
ducer co-operatives by the “household be profitable. Companies with private characteristic of the family farm, and
responsibility system”, which essentially capital and land ownership, which may it has ambiguous effects. Obviously,
re-established the family farms with take the form of joint stock companies, it has problematic implications for the
individual management. This change limited liability companies or other working and living conditions of farm

12 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
families. Yet, as family farms do not have Fish farming at Kibbutz
to reach a return to labour and capital Mashabbe-Sade in Israel.
comparable to that of other sectors of Kibbutzim are one of the few
examples in the world where
the economy, family farms are able to
producer co-operatives have
secure the livelihoods of a large share been successful.
of the population in early stages of
economic development, where other
employment opportunities are lack- quality of work is inherently
ing. In this situation, family farms are difficult to control. Farm work
only partly integrated into markets. A is difficult to supervise because
large share of them focus on subsist- it is dispersed in space, unlike
ence production. industrialised work that can
be concentrated within a fac-
With economic development, the tory. Moreover, it is not easy to
market integration of family farms assess, since outcome depends
expands. They sell an increasing share on many factors besides the
of their outputs, and operate with pur- worker’s effort, such as weather
chased inputs, often through service conditions. In addition, many
co-operatives. The term “commercial farm activities, such as milking
farms” is used for farms that are inte- cows, require diligence and
grated into markets, but as long as it is care and cannot be standard- Photo: A. Shabi/laif

the family that manages the farm and ised in the same way as indus-
provides the major share of the farm trial activities. This contributes
labour, such commercial farms are still to the difficulties in supervising
family farms. hired labour. Family farms are
especially well suited for such types of such as rural roads, is essential. To
In the course of industrialisation, work as they can rely on familial obliga- what extent family farms require sub-
the number of family farms declines as tions and the prospect of inheriting the sidies has remained to be one of the
labour is increasingly absorbed by the farm to motivate their members to work most contested questions in the cur-
non-agricultural sector. Mechanisation hard and apply the required diligence. rent development policy debate. Sub-
allows the remaining family farms to sidies often benefit the better-off and
increase the area of land that they can politically well-connected family farms
cultivate with their family labour. There- n A conducive policy more than the needy ones. Yet, past
fore, family farms can be rather large environment is needed experience shows that subsidies can
in industrialised countries, especially if play an important role in introducing
population density is low, as in the USA Since family farms occupy the new technologies and in kick-starting
or Australia. In the more densely popu- largest share of the population in markets. As already mentioned, family
lated industrialised countries of West- low-income countries, far-reaching farms also benefit from the opportunity
ern Europe, where land is scarce, family development effects can be achieved to form service co-operatives and to
farms engage in mixed farming or spe- if agricultural policies aim at improv- act collectively when accessing input
cialise in livestock production to earn a ing their income opportunities, most and output markets. Family farms can
sufficient return to their family labour, or notably through an increase in pro- increase their income through contract
they switch to part-time farming. ductivity. In fact, there is virtually no farming with agribusiness enterprises
example of mass poverty reduction in as well, but such arrangements need a
While Kautsky’s theory remains rel- modern history that did not start with conducive policy framework, too. Last
evant to understand the nature of the sharp increases in productivity among but not least, family farms benefit from
family farm, a more recent branch of small family farms. However, to reach a political environment that allows
the economic literature called “New this goal, family farms need a condu- them to form farmers’ associations and
Institutional Economics” has identified cive policy environment. Investment develop political voice. This is essential
another important reason for the com- in agricultural research, extension and to overcome the widespread political
parative advantage of the family farm education is particularly important in bias against agriculture in develop-
vis-à-vis other types of organisation: increasing family farm productivity. To ment policy, and to use family farms
its ability to provide strong incentives enable family farms to access markets, as an engine of poverty reduction, eco-
for its members in a sector where the public investment in infrastructure, nomic growth and prosperity.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 13
Focus

Strenghthening with projects and transfer programmes

more or less linked to the production of
food for self-sufficiency, for supplying

family farms local markets and finally marketing the

surplus in the domestic markets.

in Mercosur n Rescuing the sector

Since 2000, and all along this four-

For a long time, the agricultural policies of the Mercosur teen-year process (2000–2013) in
states ignored family farming, focusing on promoting which the FIDA Mercosur Programme
acted as a facilitator to support the con-
individual crops and export production instead. Rural struction of the platform for dialogue on
development was not on the agenda. Only after the turn public policies for family farming, there
have been several changes in the politi-
of the millennium did a process of rethinking set in. cal scenario, in the economic, commer-
cial and financial environment, as well
In the early 2000s it was not easy rural development, or as a productive as several changes in the social context.
to find recognition of the existence of category responsible for the produc-
family farming in our region. Agricul- tion of a more than relevant share of In the late 1990’s and early 2000’s,
tural producers were large, medium the food consumed in the countries in and led by Brazil, the governments in
and small, technically advanced – capi- question and worldwide. Everything the region experienced an ideological
talised, or engaged in self-subsistence was dumped into one single category – shift, which resulted in changes in their
and decidedly poor and part of the Agriculture – with infrastructure invest- approaches and public policy invest-
problem that the lack of rural develop- ment decisions that were typically mis- ment priorities on a macroeconomic
ment posed. timed, detached and split from the pro- scale, at a social level and in each sector.
duction and social needs in rural areas. Governments started to focus on how
Farming and/or agricultural policies to overcome the terrible economic crisis
were “vertical”, organised by produce The old approach was exces-
types. Technologies were available for sively market-oriented, and the
wheat, cattle, soy or rice and there were size of the economic scale was a
credits for wheat, sunflower, citrus or key determinant in the model; it
the dairy production. That was how favoured those producers and/
the policies, instruments and resources or traders that had the potential
were organised. They reached top- of actively inserting themselves
down to the territories individually, and to increase exports, making the
were oriented towards those produc- most of our countries’ compara-
ers with the corresponding technical tive advantages. However, con-
or market conditions, or with previous version policies were developed
accumulation, and capable of receiving for those producers who were
the instruments and adopting them as unable to meet the demands of
their own. the markets. They would initially
remain in the same industry, to
Family farming was not even rec- later change to other areas of the
ognised as an economic category of economy. Ultimately, compen-
accumulation, as a social category of satory policies were generated,

Álvaro Ramos Trigo In the region, there was a

paradigm shift in the concept of
Regional Programme Co-ordinator
Photo: J. Boethling

public investment policies for rural

FIDA Mercosur – CLAEH areas at the beginning of the 21st
Montevideo, Uruguay century, redefining the role family
[email protected] farms play in reducing poverty.

14 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
which the region had experienced as a
The FIDA Mercosur Programme
consequence of the 1997/1998 Asian
Crisis – with the devaluation of the Real In 1999, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD/FIDA) approved
in Brazil, the collapse of the Argentinean the first grant for the governments of Mercosur (which was then Argentina, Brazil,
economy in late 2001 and the banking Paraguay and Uruguay and has since been joined by Venezuela), plus Chile and
Bolivia. The aim was to support the institutionalisation of policies that promote rural
crisis in Uruguay in 2002. The aim was to
development and alleviation of poverty. Since then, the programme has been ex-
alleviate poverty and indigence, redis-
tended several times. In 2012 the Programme passed to depend on CLAEH, the Centro
tribute income among the underprivi- Latinoamericano de Economía Humana. CLAEH is a Uruguayan non-governmental
leged and encourage the production organisation that campaigns for democratic and socially-balanced regional develop-
sectors to go from the domestic market ment and a university institute.
towards exports.

Almost a decade and a half have and efficient policies and instruments to ing on Family Farming of Mercosur
already elapsed, also coinciding with channel public investment. Together, (REAF). This is an advisory body of the
the most notable reversal of historical the players gathered experience in the key executive organs of the political/
trends in the terms of trade concerning Mercosur legal and political framework, commercial block, as well as being an
the price of agricultural commodities, which certainly helped promote the institutionalised policy dialogue plat-
particularly that of food. Thanks to this paradigm shift, which is based on two form on differentiated public policies
economic phenomenon, all the Merco- premises. for family farming.
sur countries, being net food exporters
(at least prior to the accession of Ven- First premise. Family farming in the The Mercosur countries have expe-
ezuela in 2012), have achieved a very Mercosur area is not synonymous with rienced that Policy Dialogue can be
significant and steady growth. rural poverty. Actually, family farming is a very effective instrument for the
a broad and heterogeneous category, improvement and strengthening of the
The poverty and indigence rates that and across the world, the term is used regional integration process, providing
the countries dragged since the above- to encompass not only families of poor an opportunity for the orderly partici-
mentioned crisis have been reduced. farmers, but also families with a huge pation of civil society. It has guided the
Starting in late 2002, the agriculture- capacity for working, processing, invest- discussions about the opportunities
related gross product has grown unin- ing, handling and managing their pro- that stem from the integration of the
terruptedly, and farming has increased duction systems – often with linkages nations in the political/economic block
its share in the economy of these coun- to the markets. and about how to prevent the necessary
tries. Additional public investment adjustments to the process from falling
resources became available, and invest- Second premise. Family farming is on the backs of the weak and of a rural
ment in social and human development part of the solution to the poverty issues population that is strategic for the bal-
was clearly prioritised, and so was the in rural areas as long as it is recognised as anced development of the region.
development of food production, rescu- such, and if it is addressed with differen-
ing family farming as a sector. tial public policies to guide investment The policy dialogue process has
and public services. The aim should not given rise to more and better public
Under the leadership of Brazil, the be to compensate those left out of the policies for family farming in each coun-
region began to recognise the socioeco- market, but to promote capacity build- try, enriched and harmonised by the
nomic status of family farming; a major ing and associations and the develop- exchanges between countries from the
paradigm shift was observed in the con- ment of appropriate technologies that beginning. One example of this is the
cept of public investment policies for incorporate value to products and facili- process through which all the countries
the social and economic development tate trade, and to encourage private in the region have passed new rules and
of rural areas. A number of players were business partnerships. regulations to incorporate family agri-
involved in the process, including lead- culture as a core supplier in the states’
ers of social organisations representing public procurement programmes as
family farming in the region, together n Policy dialogue as a they implement their food security
with governments, through their Min- methodology for the design of strategies.
istries of Agriculture and Rural Develop- better public policies
ment. In turn, the International Fund This requires not only an analysis
for Agricultural Development – IFAD – In 2004, after four years of prepara- and exchange of views to adjust and
played its recognised role of facilitator tory discussions and actions, Brazil pro- to implement any changes required in
and partner for the design of effective posed creating the Specialised Meet- the existing regulations; it also demands

Rural 21 – 02/2014 15
Focus
A farmer in Paraguay delivering
his produce.

n More than a mere

commemoration

In the three or four years before the

United Nations General Assembly des-
ignated 2014 as the International Year
of Family Farming, the social organisa-
tions that represent family farming in
the different continents and regions,
supported and encouraged by the

Photo: R. Birner
World Rural Forum, raised the issue and
put it on the table for consideration by
the international community. Social,
professional and political support, as
policies that empower family farmers (c) The increase in the population well as that of unions, was gradually
and their organisations so that they covered (more beneficiaries). obtained until consensus was reached
can become state suppliers (by provid- (d) The increased budget; from after some debate, and the Delegations
ing them technical assistance and out- 2004 to 2013 budgets were increased at the Assembly promoted and voted
reach as well as financing and invest- by 308 per cent in Argentina, 450 per the appropriateness of designating
ment in farms and rural organisations). cent in Brazil, 306 per cent in Paraguay 2014 as the International Year of Family
Only then will they be in a position to and 1,029 per cent in Uruguay. Farming (IYFF).
act as government “reliable suppliers”,
respecting best price conditions, ensur- In REAF’s Policy Dialogue discus- The great challenge for social actors
ing timeliness in delivery, quality and – sions, the six countries have addressed and promoters of the IYFF has been to
first and foremost – ensuring food safety topics such as: move from remembrance (legitimate
and the respect for plant and animal and well deserved) to the ratification of
health rules and standards. n Risk management and farm assur- the institutional, political and budgetary
ance; space that would facilitate a sustained
In the ten years of REAF’s history, four n Rural financial services and access improvement in income, quality of life
indicators have been used to show the to finance; and opportunities for progress and social
progress made by the region in terms of n Appropriate technologies; justice for the rural dwellers, including
public policy for family farming: n Access to land and agrarian reform the families engaged in agriculture.
processes;
(a) The number of legal/administra- n Concentration and foreign owner- Today, we have an opportunity to
tive instruments (laws, decrees, resolu- ship of land in Mercosur; make the International Year of Family
tions) aimed at creating tools to support n Gender vision in family farming Farming go well beyond a mere com-
family farming that can be identified in policies; memoration. The people’s representa-
each country. n Settlement of the rural youth; tives, law-makers and political leaders
(b) The new modern and enhanced n Climate change adaptation and from a range of philosophical back-
public framework that has been incor- mitigation; grounds should learn about and debate
porated in the countries of the region, n Social seal for family farming prod- these concepts, new paradigms and
comprising e.g. the Secretariat for Rural ucts; new instruments of public policy.
Development and Family Agriculture n Volunteer family farming national
of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock records; Preparing ourselves to meet the chal-
and Fishery of Argentina, the General n Public procurement and lenges of the future is not enough; the
Directorate for Rural Development of n South/South co-operation, by future must be built. The focus of the
the Uruguayan Ministry of Agriculture, governments and organisations, coming years will be to build upon what
Livestock and Fishery (MGAP), and the and between the countries, to has already been consolidated and to
Directorate for the Support of Family exchange experiences and learn continue to “open” and “refreshen” the
Farming of the MAG of Paraguay. together. agenda with new proposals.

16 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus

Women – the untapped

potential for food security
Despite the crucial role of women in family farms and small-scale agriculture, gender
inequality is still present in many ways – jeopardising the food and nutrition security
of millions of people.

Family farming by definition is a International Year of Family Farming (see a diversity of tasks in smallholder agri-
means of organising agricultural, for- also articles on pages 6–10). culture, livestock husbandry and house-
estry, fisheries, pastoral and aquaculture holds, making them responsible both
production. It is managed and operated For this reason, the following arti- for meeting basic needs and the sur-
by a family and is predominantly reliant cle provides an overview of the various vival of the family. In addition, it is the
on non-wage family labour, provided tasks, challenges and responsibilities women who cook the food and spend
by women, men and children working of women in family farms across the a total of roughly 40 billion hours a year
together on the family’s farm. In this con- global South. In addition, negative con- fetching water.
cept, the family and the farm are closely sequences of gender-biased politics and
linked, co-evolve and combine eco- its effects on food and nutrition security Women assume important activi-
nomic, environmental, reproductive, are illustrated. Conclusively, gender- ties in family food production, ranging
social and cultural functions. In most of sensitive methods and approaches are from seed management through the
Africa and South Asia, small farms run presented that have been field-tested in cultivation of agricultural produce to
by the family still account for the largest various rural development programmes storage, processing and marketing of
share of agricultural output. implemented by Deutsche Gesell­schaft certain products. In the smallholder or
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit subsistence economy, their role is of par-
The role of women in these small- (GIZ) on behalf of the German Federal ticular significance since men are more
holder agricultural systems is particularly Ministry for Economic Cooperation and involved in marketing-oriented produc-
remarkable as they provide the bulk of Development (BMZ). tion. In animal husbandry, women are
the agricultural labour force. They mainly mainly responsible for poultry and small
produce food for household consump- livestock, feeding and milking, cleaning
tion and local markets, whereas men n Nothing works without women: out the coops, barns and sties as well as
work more often in wage labour or cash a wide range of essential composting the manure. It is up to them
crop production. Despite this vital role of responsibilities
women in small-scale agriculture, gender
Men and women planting vegetables
inequality is still present in many ways. The gender-based division of labour together in Senegal. In sub-Saharan
Women, for example, have less access to in developing countries assigns women Africa only 15 per cent of land-owners
productive resources, services and assets, are women.
and their vital contribution to the family
farm is often still ignored. Consequently,
closing the gender gap and recognising
women’s rights and role in family farm-
ing is one of the core objectives of the

Nadine Guenther
[email protected]
Photo: B. Schurian/KfW

Christel Weller-Molongua

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale

Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH
Eschborn, Germany

Rural 21 – 02/2014 17
Focus
of optimally. The Food and Agriculture
Some facts on rural women
Organization of the United Nations
n Presently, around 842 million people are suffering from hunger world-wide, espe- (FAO) estimates that women could raise
cially in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Sixty per cent of them are women and girls. yield by this percentage, if they had
n Women make a significant contribution to family farming. equal access to productive resources,
n Women account for an average 40 per cent of the agricultural labour force. The inputs, information and services. Over-
share reaches from 20 per cent in Latin America to 50 per cent in East Asia and sub- all agricultural production in developing
Saharan Africa, and in some West African countries, it is up to 80 per cent. countries would grow by up to four per
n Only around five per cent of all agricultural extension services reach and benefit cent, and the number of people suffer-
women farmers. Topics of special concern to women are frequently only insuffi- ing hunger would drop by 100 to 150
ciently addressed by male advisors, while just a few advisors are women. million people. In addition, experience
n Women benefit from a mere 10 per cent of financial support for agriculture and has shown that if women generate their
forestry or fisheries. own income and enjoy land ownership
as well as control of financial resources,
this will have a direct positive effect on
to maintain the animals’ health and to the household. While the absence of their children’s nutrition, health and
process animal products such as eggs, men makes the efforts of women more education. Thus one of the most impor-
milk and wool. In addition, women apparent, an ever increasing number of tant factors in food security is closing
tend the household and kitchen gar- women have to take on additional tasks. the gender gap by greater participation
dens, which often secure the families’ and support of women as producers,
food supplies in times of poor harvests. Despite this key role in family farm- ensuring their ownership and access
In this way, women ensure their fam- ing, women are denied or enjoy only to inputs, services and information as
ily’s healthy and diversified nutrition restricted access to and control of pro- well as the elimination of structurally
but also contribute importantly to the ductive resources such as land, live- and culturally conditioned gender dis-
absorption of shocks by increasing the stock and water. Women lack access crimination.
household’s resilience. They are also to information, knowledge, and inputs
heavily involved in the fisheries sector. (fertiliser, seeds or financial services)
In Asia and West Africa up to 80 per cent and face mobility constraints in many n More effective approaches in
of fish catches and shellfish is marketed regions. In developing countries, 80 securing better opportunities
by women. This shows that women per cent of staple food is produced by
play a key role in family farms across the women, but they only own an aver- GIZ is conducting a wide range of
world. Moreover, they are the key actors age of ten per cent of cultivated land. measures to promote women as well as
regarding survival strategies and mini- For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, 85 gender mainstreaming in order to elimi-
mising risk to households. The relevance per cent of land-owners are men due nate gender-conditioned development
and diversity of their activities make to legal and cultural hurdles posed by obstacles in rural areas. The following
women important knowledge-bearers inheritance. In Mali, women own a examples clarify this.
with respect to the sustainable use of mere five per cent of cropland. Often,
natural resources, climate adaptation land is only registered in the name of Capacity Development as a key to
strategies and agrobiodiversity. In spite a man, even if his wife has bought or equitable rural development helps
of this, the work performed by women inherited the land or added it to the women to decisively raise their access
is generally unpaid, and often they can household when marrying. Moreover, to and control of natural resources
only earn an income by selling surplus various studies show that the disad- and other inputs. Specific training as
agricultural produce. vantaging of women in times of crisis well as integrating women in rural
or in the wake of natural disasters is on organisations have proven to be par-
the increase. Women are bearing the ticularly effective. GIZ is supporting
n Making use of the potential brunt of shocks and crises and are the this approach in the Fizi Region of the
first ones to make do without food for Democratic Republic of Congo. In addi-
In many regions, wars and conflicts, the benefit of their families. tion to improved agricultural produc-
disease, HIV/Aids and the growing tion practices, the women are trained
migration of male family members to As a result of this inequality and gen- in the organising and management
urban areas or abroad are resulting in der gap, women smallholders produce of civil society and producer groups in
a trend towards a feminisation of agri- 20 to 30 per cent less per area unit than order to enhance their role and their
culture, with women bearing the sole male producers. Thus the potential that self-confidence in the family and in local
responsibility for production as well as the family farm bears is not made use decision-making structures. The male

18 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
village population and local authori- A family processing cereals in Peru. In
ties are sensitised to improve the divi- Latin America, women account for on
sion of labour in the family and thus average 20 per cent of the agricultural
labour force.
give women better protection and the
opportunity to earn their own income.
Local services have been reactivated and success factor. Having an equal say in
advise the whole farming family, men decision-making processes enables bet-
and women, on modern cultivation. ter access for women to resources and
By selling excess field produce at local production factors such as land, water,

Photo: C. Haeusler/GIZ
markets, women and families receive capital and markets. This becomes
an additional income. Village commit- apparent, for example, in inland fish-
tees, supported or newly founded by eries in Burkina Faso, where targeted
the project, arbitrate in cases of con- involvement of women actors through
flict, usually over land rights. Together participatory management approaches
with traditional authorities and in co- along the fish value chain has signifi-
operation with judges and lawyers, tra- cantly increased family income and food changing their bylaws, the two partici-
ditional law is being revised and aligned security of households. pating and already existing co-opera-
with national law, supporting women’s tives made it easier for women to join
access to land. Creating transparency and gender- them, which caused the share of female
sensitive awareness of existing gender members to rise from eight to 43 per
GIZ uses policy advice to create a imbalances among the population in cent. In addition, the women started
political and institutional environment rural areas is a further necessary step. to formulate their needs and demands
that is favourable to women in the for- This is accomplished with the aid of more clearly and specifically request ser-
mal and informal agricultural sector. key actors such as village chiefs, elders vices. As a result of their key role, donors
Experience has shown that an adequate and spiritual leaders, which is also how began reorienting their strategies and
political and legal framework is indis- awareness was raised among men of assigning more financial resources to
pensable in ensuring women equitable the important contribution made by women.
access to resources and means of pro- women in the milk industry in a joint
duction and control of them. In Nepal, GIZ and Oxfam project in Nicaragua.
the rate of official and registered land In a series of meetings organised by n Conclusions
transfer to women has increased three- gender specialists, the participants
fold thanks to a special incentive system of the project discussed the different Sustainable rural development that
in land taxation involving a ten per cent roles of women and men. The sessions contributes to food and nutrition secu-
tax exemption for any land registered in addressed quality requirements and rity as well as poverty reduction still
a woman’s name. related task distribution, included ser- requires full acknowledgement of the
vices provided to women and men by roles and responsibilities of women in
Ensuring and institutionalising a bal- the co-operative and provided train- rural areas and the provision of ade-
anced and equal participation of women ing on communication skills between quate support. On family farms, women
and men in all administrative and deci- husband and wife to promote joint make an essential contribution to
sion-making committees is a further decision-making as a business unit. By food production and thus significantly
increase food and nutrition security
in rural areas. However, much poten-
No one-size-fits-all solutions tial is still unused. Rural development
approaches and measures therefore
In most countries, discrimination of women is still present and therefore reducing
have to clearly reflect this reality and
the inequalities between the genders, and strengthening the role of women remains
a great challenge. However, context-specific analyses and approaches are required
focus their activities more on supporting
according to the particular socio-cultural, economic and ecological conditions. There women and closing the existing gender
are no one-size-fits-all solutions. The work of GIZ has shown that even in areas such as gap. This is a precondition for reducing
Afghanistan, where women’s discrimination is still high and gender relations as well hunger, strengthening rural livelihoods,
as the promotion of women remain a big challenge, much can be achieved in rural de- and sustainably improving living condi-
velopment, namely at village and family farm level, if sensitive methods and context- tions in rural areas. The IYFF is the right
specific, adapted approaches are applied. Furthermore, gender-sensitive action needs time to shed light on women’s role in
to be based on a broader process of creating awareness that supports the change of
family farming, raise awareness and
mind set of rural families, communities and decision-makers.
start with action.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 19
Focus

“We have inherited not

only a piece of land, but
also the responsibility
to turn it into a home”
A focus edition on family farming would hardly be credible

Photo: F. W. Munyi
without giving the family farmers themselves an opportunity
to speak. We talked to Moses Munyi, the owner of a six-
hectare farm in Embu, Kenya, about his everyday life and For 67-year-old Moses Munyi,
farming has always been more
about his views of the prospects for farming in the future. than just a business.

n Mr. Munyi, does the expression a piece of land from our late father in fields by six in the morning and work
“family farming” mean anything accordance with our traditions. But until three or five in the afternoon. But
to you? the responsibility to turn that piece of we work more often in the tea planta-
land not only into a farm but also into tion than in the coffee plantation. The
The expression itself doesn’t. But I a home was left on our hands. Since I tea crop needs regular pruning if it is
have read some reports on how boost- retired from civil service eleven years to blossom.
ing small-scale farmers could help ago, I have been a fulltime farmer.
especially in the attempts by the gov- Meanwhile, the cows are fed at
ernment to curb urban immigration. n What does a normal working day least every three to four hours and are
look like on your farm? milked for the second time at noon,
n Have you always been a farmer? which is when we also get to have
Here, every day is a working day, lunch.
I grew up on a farm, so farming whether we are in the fields or not,
has always been a big part of my life, there is always something to do. The After the tea has been delivered to
as well as of that of my whole family. cows must be milked three times a the buying centre, there is no guar-
I have 13 siblings, and each of us has day. So basically, our day starts at antee when it will be collected by the
got his or her own farm. And although four o’clock in the morning, when factory transporters. So you have to
the sizes may vary, we all cultivate tea the first milking is done. And then keep an eye on your product. Thieves
and coffee and rear livestock among the milk must be delivered to the col- are always waiting for an opportunity.
other food crops. Each of us received lection point by not later than five The last chores at my farm are cutting
thirty. After break- and transporting the Napier grass,
fast, the various cleaning the cowshed and the third
errands around round of milking the cows. Grinding
the farm have to the Napier grass and mixing it with
be seen to. For other vegetation such as banana
instance, on days leaves or hay is done every day, so that
when we are pick- the cows have food for the next day.
ing tea or coffee,
we are out in the n Do you hire labourers to help you
with farm work?
Photo: F. W. Munyi

Moses Munyi's
son Anthony In the past I used to hire three
Muriithy harvesting or four permanent employees and
avocados. several casual workers, but that has

20 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
changed in recent years. Labour has n If you compare farming today due either to lack of labour or lack of
become difficult to find and when it with say, 20 years ago, what has proper storage.
is available, it is very expensive. Occa- changed?
sionally, we get some casual workers n Let’s get back to marketing
who help with either harvesting the A lot has changed, both for better aspects. How do you get the
tea and coffee or other tasks around and for worse, I guess. For instance, necessary information?
the farm. paying for educating my children
with the income from my farm was As far as tea is concerned, the Kenya
n Tell us a little bit about the easy back then. Today, farmers can Tea Development Agency offers farm-
marketing of your products. barely afford to feed their children or ers a field day once a year when,
send them to school, let alone pay for among other things, new techniques
In Kenya, the tea industry is gener- their higher education, as I was able are demonstrated and farmers learn
ally divided between small farms and to. So the introduction of free primary more about the marketing process.
large estates. The small-scale sector is education was a big step forward and
controlled by the Kenya Tea Develop- also reduced cases of child labour. n Do you feel that farmers are fairly
ment Agency (KTDA), which manages The other major change is the avail- represented in the marketing
all smallholding tea factories, deter- ability of labour. There are several chain?
mines the prices and is also the direct reasons for this, the chief one being
buyer from farmers. The Tea Board epidemic diseases such as HIV/Aids. Basically, farmers are there to culti-
of Kenya manages the tea industry in Sick people cannot work, which is vate the product and deliver it to the
Kenya on behalf of the Government. affecting agriculture in the whole respective buyers. The rest is taken
country. In addition, changes in life- over by the responsible organisations
Coffee, on the other hand, is sold style in the rural areas mean that many or co-operatives and a good number
through the co-operative societies, young people find it embarrassing to of middlemen who are responsible
which service most of the small-scale be called a farmer. They would rather for the marketing and binding and
farmers. The co-operative societies seek minor jobs in the cities even determine the prices. With so many
process their coffee through their when they are less well paid than brokers in the marketing chain, farm-
factories, serve as the custodians of working on a farm. Urban immigra- ers can only get a raw deal.
the coffee for their members and are tion is a huge challenge, not only in
supposed to benefit individual mem- this region, but in Kenya in general. n What about farmers’
bers through economies of scale. As organisations or co-operatives?
for the dairy, after years of selling milk n Are food losses a big problem on
to processing companies with little your farm? As I mentioned earlier, coffee is sold
success, I resorted to selling it locally through co-operative societies, and
to restaurants or hotels and brokers During the high seasons of tea and for dairy farmers, we have milk pro-
who buy from us and then resell the coffee, we have a lot of losses because cessing companies or mini dairies. In
milk at a profit to other remote parts the produce is not collected on time, general, milk marketing is done by the
of the country. and sometimes, after days of wait- Dairy Board of Kenya and Kenya Co-
ing, the tea leaves and coffee beans operative Creameries (KCC). But what
n Are prices sufficient to make are dried up or rotten. Other food I think lacks is some kind of formal
a profit? crops such as maize and beans are lost association that is organised by farm-

The prices of both tea and coffee

The Munyi farm
have dropped, and this is a nation-
wide problem. One other aspect Moses Munyi runs a six-hectare piece of land in Embu County, in the eastern province
that negativeley affects income is of Kenya. Tea and coffee are the major cash crops. In addition, he cultivates and sells
the changes in the seasons. Com- small amounts of avocados, passion fruits and macadamia nuts. Also, he keeps six
pared to earlier times, the dry sea- milk-producing cows, three expectant heifers and three calves. Their milk production
fluctuates throughout the year. During low seasons, some months after cows have
sons are longer now, and sometimes
given birth, in dry seasons or when one or two of the cows fall ill or die, they produce
the rain comes at times when it is not
about 25 litres a day. At peak times, they can yield more than 80 litres.
expected. So often, there are many
To feed his cows, Moses Munyi grows Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum). For family
months when the tea leaves dry out
consumption, he cultivates maize and beans, potatoes, pineapples, sugarcanes, green
and don’t have the quality to be har-
vegetables and bananas.
vested.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 21
Focus
Tea and coffee are the main cash crops
of the farm.

to continue this tradition, but very

often, young people only see farming
as a kind of job for those who have no
other choice. They lack the passion
for farming.

Since many young people are

unemployed despite having studied,
one might think that inheriting a life-
long source of income is a good thing.
Nonetheless, inheriting a farm won’t

Photo: T. Bexten
guarantee its future if you don’t know
how to run it.

Meanwhile, there are also those

ers for farmers and acts as the direct whenever conflicts and controver- who inherit a farm but cannot live
contact to the buyers. Then there sies arise in the intricate relationship on it because of jobs in the cities.
would be fewer brokers in the market- between the various organisations Previously, managing a farm from a
ing chain, which would also reduce and stakeholders or when political distance was easier since labour was
corruption. The situation today makes instability develops, it is the farmers available. But these days, it is difficult
farmers like myself helpless and puts who suffer. Besides, there is a gen- to find somebody who is reliable and
them at the mercy of some very influ- eral lack of sustainable investments willing to work fulltime on a farm.
ential middlemen. to fund agriculture and agricultural Unfortunately, farming is losing on
policies in favour of small farmers on many fronts.
n What is hindering the the part of the government.
establishment of such an n What can be done to cultivate
association? n How do you see the future of young people’s interest in
farming – in general and for you farming, considering that
Besides the fact that the involved personally? agriculture is said to be the
middlemen will stop at nothing to backbone of Kenya’s economy?
make sure that they stay in busi- It doesn’t look very promising to
ness, there is also the general lack of me. As long as the conditions to make The government has to try and
knowhow. Most rural farmers don’t farming attractive to the younger give back pride in farming through
care how the entire production and generation are missing, our future in boosting not only the agricultural
marketing process of their products general will be compromised. sector in general but also small-scale
works. Naturally, since most are not and local farming. If farmers are well
highly educated, they find such a As for me, now that all my children paid and can afford a decent live, then
complex process rather challenging. have left the nest, it is only my wife no shame will be linked to it. I think
So it is easier to leave it to those out and I who are left to work and manage it is the notion of poverty associated
there who seem to know better just the farm. I’m happy that I could offer with farming that makes youths afraid
as long as the farmers get their pay, all my children a good education. As a of. This is also because to most rural
however little it may be. result, however, none of them want to folk, farming is linked with traditional
live in the village and work on the farm methods of farming – which indeed
n What other kind of obstacles do now. Of course this makes me sad. It is it often is. So the farms have to be
you see for making farming more important to understand that to most modernised – not just as a way to feed
profitable? of us, at least those of my generation, one’s immediate family, but also as
farming is part of our culture. Owning potentially successful businesses that
Of course there are the general land and working on it means not only can have a much wider impact.
challenges such as poor infrastruc- making a living out of agriculture, but
ture, low prices, climate change and also pursuing the traditional way of
its impacts, and lack of labour. And life of our forefathers. We would like Olive Bexten conducted the interview.

22 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus

Machinery rings – a mechanisation concept for African farmers?

African agriculture is mainly characterised assistance for social welfare (Betriebshilfe) machinery ring itself, other machinery
by small-scale structures, and the level of and optimise management structures rings) were needed. It was necessary to
mechanisation is very low. European farms through consultation and exchange of include solutions for steering, manage-
faced a similar situation after the Second workers and services. In some parts of ment, financing, organisation, administra-
World War. With the aid of machinery Germany, machinery rings represent an tion, legal framework, (advisory) services
rings, they quickly achieved a higher de- important economic factor and create em- and maintenance in a long-term strategy,
gree of mechanisation. Furthermore, it be- ployment in rural areas. The first machin- he stated. One option could be to start
came apparent that machinery rings can ery rings in Germany were established in with pilot machinery rings in selected
significantly contribute to socio-economic the 1960s. Today the Federal Association countries and subsequently establish a
development in rural areas by boosting of Machinery Pools (BMR) has 263 ma- machinery ring at regional level (South-
income generation, enhancing livelihoods chinery rings and 193,100 members. The ern Africa). In this case, there would be
and contributing to food security. Federal Association is divided into twelve co-ordinating structures at national levels,
sub-national associations. whilst a regional organisation could take
In this context, leading representatives – over duties such as training, IT support,
small as well as large-scale farmers – of the What are hurdles for the establishment donor liaison or liaising with SADC. “We
Southern African Confederation of Agri- of machinery rings in Africa? Which will not get Africa‘s under-utilised land
cultural Unions (SACAU) had been invited framework conditions are needed? These under production with a hand hoe,” Mr
by the German Farmers’ Association (DBV) were some of the key questions to be de Jager said, emphasising the importance
to a one-week study tour to Germany in answered during the tour. “It is not of mechanisation.
May 2014 to discuss key conditions for the only about the establishment of a single
success of machinery rings. The ideas and machinery ring, it’s about the develop- During discussions on the development of
impressions obtained are to support the ment of a comprehensive strategy which a concept note for framework conditions,
development of a tailor-made strategy for considers the whole value chain,” Theo it was proposed that existing organisation
African countries. de Jager, President of SACAU, stressed. structures be used as “docking stations”
He had a long-term perspective for the for machinery rings provided they met
But what exactly is a machinery ring? It is development of machinery rings in some basic conditions, for example the
an association of individual farmers with mind. Southern Africa especially lacked existence of producer organisations,
the aim of sharing agricultural machin- functioning value chains, financing, functioning structures at all levels, busi-
ery and equipment. Thus the concept technology and expertise, Mr de Jager ness and service orientation, information
improves access to technology for farm- said. Mechanisation, particularly through flow, etc. Further, a healthy membership
ers, as it provides a financing strategy to the establishment of machinery rings, base, capacity for management, sources
purchase and share agricultural machin- could be the key to addressing these for finance (domestic and/or external),
ery, including technical maintenance and issues. In order to succeed, contributions capacities/skills for operating machin-
repair services. The farmers can contribute from and co-operation among different ery and access to markets should be in
to minimise production costs, improve stakeholders (e.g. farmers, the govern- place. While large-scale farmers especially
working conditions, provide operational ment, investors, contractors, donors, the needed support in leasing, smaller farms
required help with loans, the participants
stressed. They were convinced that the
concept was applicable in their countries.
This assessment was also shared by Willi
Kampmann, Head of the DBV Unit Inter-
national Relations in Brussels, who stated:
“Farmers need to be politically and eco-
nomically independent. Machinery rings
are one successful example of efficient
organisation and how it can contribute
to the sustainability of family farms and
to achieve food security. What has suc-
Photo: DBV

ceeded here does not necessarily work in

other countries, but German experiences
can provide a useful input.”
Participants of the study tour from Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and
Ghana visiting a family farm and machinery ring member in Lower Saxony. The tour was Katharina Schlemper
organised within the framework of the German Federal Ministry for Food and Agriculture’s
Development Cooperation Scout,
bilateral programme. “Farmers’ Exchange across Continents” is a series of events
organised by DBV since 2012, providing a platform for African and German farmers German Farmers’ Association
to exchange experiences and expertise in agriculture. (Deutscher Bauernverband e.V. – DBV)

Rural 21 – 02/2014 23
Focus

Agricultural biodiversity:
the foundation of
resilient family farms
In a world of rapidly changing conditions, enhancing
the adaptability and hence the resilience of family
farms is crucial to their viability. Here, diversity plays an
important role, as the following article demonstrates.

Farmers world-wide are now deal- grow enough to meet their families’
ing with extreme weather, new threats needs. Smallholder farmers often lack
of pests and diseases, changes in land the institutions and structures to man-
management and a growing and hun- age their natural resource base, which is
gry population. Can we find solutions increasingly degraded and – given that wheat and maize – to supply over half of
which not only ensure that farmers can most of these crops are also grown in our plant-derived calories. And, within
cope with our new reality but also allow rain-fed conditions – particularly vulner- those crops, we rely on only a few vari-
farmers and communities to continue to able to external shocks, including those eties. Together, only twelve crops and
develop? These are core questions that induced by climate change. five animal species account for 75 per
scientists – including at Bioversity Inter- cent of global calories. This is especially
national – are exploring with urgency. Managing diversity, of systems, true in developing countries, where
crops, varieties and trees, can provide people obtain up to 80 per cent of their
According to the Stockholm Resil- options and increase the resilience of energy from staple grains and have less
ience Centre, resilience is the capacity of households and communities to pro- access to nutrient-rich sources of food.
a system, be it an individual, a forest, a duce even in times of stress. First, agri-
city or an economy, to deal with change cultural biodiversity is connected to This has not happened by chance;
and continue to develop. Here, agricul- nutrition and food security. Second, it it happened by design. For years, we
tural biodiversity has a vital role to play, can help farmers manage risks from new thought if we only produced more cal-
for it is helping farmers to bounce back pests and diseases. Third, it can lessen ories, we could reduce hunger. So, we
from shocks and hardship. Smallholder the effects of sudden natural disasters. invested in new varieties of rice, wheat
farmers have relied on the evolution- Fourth, diversity allows natural adapta- and maize that would increase yields.
ary service of biodiversity for hundreds tion to the environment – vital in the However, reducing hunger is more
of years – in other words, on allowing face of climate change. Fifth, diversity complex than simply producing more
crops to evolve and adapt to changing reduces the risk of crop loss and con- food. In this context, Bioversity Interna-
environmental conditions, and diversi- tributes to productive, healthy farms. tional is co-ordinating the Biodiversity
fying them to reduce vulnerability. Research is showing that the use and for Food and Nutrition initiative, with
conservation of agricultural biodiver- rich case studies of work under way. One
The majority of the world’s food sity is critical to resilient farms and land- example is the Soils, Food and Health
insecure population live in rural areas scapes and to helping farmers to recover and Communities project in northern
in developing countries, and many are more quickly from hardship. Malawi. In this project, engaged small-
subsistence producers who may not holder farmers from Ekwendeni village
selected and tested mixtures of diverse
n Diversity and nutrition legume species for growing with maize
Ann Tutwiler using the ‘doubled-up’ legume tech-
Director General Today, only a few crops make up the nology promoted by the project. Pro-
Bioversity International basis of the world’s food supply. Out of ject results show that intercropping
Rome, Italy more than 7,000 varieties of food crops maize with legume mixes has resulted
[email protected] in the world, we rely on only three – rice, in improved nutrition for children in

24 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus
of the same crops next to each other The same logic applies to farms.
Farmers evaluating wheat varieties in their fields, to see which combina- There is a relationship between more
in the Tigray Region, Ethiopia. tions provide the most effective control diverse land use and less damage caused
against which pests and diseases. Initial by landslides, for example. A survey
results from around the world indicate conducted in Central American hill-
change. For example, Ugandan farmers sides after Hurricane Mitch showed that
have seen the presence of weevils that farmers using diversification practices
attack banana plants reduced by 75 such as cover crops, intercropping and
per cent when planting different varie- agroforestry suffered less damage than
Photo: J. Van De Gevel/Bioversity International
ties together. In addition, smallholder their conventional monoculture neigh-
farmers in Ecuador who planted diverse bours. These farms had 20 to 40 per
common bean varieties harvested their cent more topsoil, greater soil moisture
crop in spite of a heat wave due to the and less erosion and experienced lower
drought/heat resistance of varieties, economic losses than their conventional
while those who invested in one com- neighbours (Holt Giménez 2000). 
mercial variety only lost everything.
In another example, 40 days after
Hurricane Ike hit Cuba in 2008, research-
n Recovery after natural ers conducted a farm survey in the Prov-
disasters inces of Holguin and Las Tunas and
communities where the project is being found that diversified farms exhibited
implemented. Also, farmers and com- Biodiversity also provides a formida- losses of 50 per cent compared to 90 or
munity members have become change ble barrier against natural disasters, a 100 per cent in neighbouring monocul-
agents, adopting the practices informed type of “farmland security”. In coastal tures. Likewise, agroecologically man-
by their own research findings. Over communities, for example, a combi- aged farms showed a faster productive
9,000 Malawian farmers have adopted nation of mangroves, coral, trees, and recovery (80 – 90 per cent 40 days after
this technology to date. Through this control of soil/sand erosion are some the hurricane) than monoculture farms
project, communities are better able to of the tools that help lessen the dam- (Rosset et al. 2011). This ability to recu-
cope with hardships, including increas- age during natural disasters, while of perate and suffer less damage in the face
ing population, severe land degradation course providing ecosystem services to of natural disasters demonstrates how
causing drops in crop yields, food inse- wildlife and people as well. The call for diversity can increase the resilience of
curity and malnutrition. This is resilience the restoration and enhancement of agricultural landscapes (or agriculture
at work through biodiversity. coastal protected areas following Hur- at the landscape level).
ricane Katrina and the 2004 Tsunami
also highlighted this important role of
n Management of pests and diversity as “natural defenses”. Without n Adaptation to climate change
diseases these defenses, coastal communities
are more vulnerable to hardship as our The latest report from the Intergov-
Outbreaks from pests and diseases weather becomes more extreme. ernmental Panel on Climate Change
that attack farms and gardens cause
a significant amount of crop loss.
Shrinking diversity: The heavy reliance on a narrow diversity of crops puts future food
Research shows that diversity acts as
and nutrition security at risk
insurance against damage from these
pests and diseases. A greater number 250,000 3
of varieties leads to a reduction in dis-
7,000 Rice, maize and wheat
ease severity, which ultimately translates
currently provide 60 % of the
into less crop loss/higher yields. Diverse world’s food energy take
farms are more resilient to pest and dis-
Number of crops used
ease outbreaks because they lower the for food by humans
risk of complete devastation. throughout history

12
Bioversity International and our part-
Number of crops that together
ners have been working with farmers with 5 animal species provide
world-wide to plant different varieties Globally identified plant species 75 % of the world’s food today

Rural 21 – 02/2014 25
Focus
a mechanism based on community n Biodiversity for a resilient
genebanks to ensure availability of the future
preferred accessions to farmers, and
raised awareness among local farmers The challenge ahead of us is com-
and decision-makers of the risks posed plex. Across the world, 842 million
by climate change, sharing information people are currently food insecure, a
about how the use of better-adapted number that is set to rise as weather vari-
varieties can support vulnerable farmers ability induced by climate change takes
to protect livelihoods and ensure food its toll. Meanwhile, we must also boost
Photo: P. Quek/Bioversity International

security. Access to diversity and better food availability by 60 per cent by 2050
knowledge of varieties empowers farm- to feed nine billion mouths, both nutri-
ers to choose what is most suitable for tiously and without further encroaching
their fields, and gives them options to on our natural resource base.
be more resilient to erratic weather and
shifting climatic patterns. Bioversity International’s refreshed
strategy aims to ensure that agricultural
biodiversity contributes to four strategic
A farmer standing among taro varieties in
n Productive, healthy farms objectives:
Papua New Guinea.
1. Low-income consumers have
Biodiversity lessens vulnerability to expanded access to and use of afford-
reinforces that climate change will affect loss and helps manage risks, and it also able, nutritious diets.
everyone – and is happening now. In contributes to productive, healthy farm- 2. Rural communities have increased
addition to poverty and hunger, we are ing systems. Bioversity International the productivity, ecosystem services
dealing with a triple threat of extreme researchers and partners have devel- and resilience of farming systems,
weather. oped and tested a set of indicators to forests and landscapes.
determine the resilience of agricultural 3. Farm households and rural com-
The use of agricultural biodiversity is landscapes. Their research found that munities have increased access to a
a powerful tool for adapting to climate Nepal’s Rupa and Begnas landscapes diversity of quality seeds and other
change and reducing climate risk. Bio- had high capacity to absorb stresses planting materials.
versity International’s Seeds for Needs due to diverse production systems and 4. Policy-makers, scientists and rural
initiative is part of the CGIAR Research strong social organisation. Reforestation communities have safeguarded and
Program on Climate Change, Agricul- and sustainable management of forest assessed and are monitoring priority
ture and Food Security. We are work- resources, for example, play a strong agricultural biodiversity.
ing with farmers in India, Papua New role in ensuring the delivery of impor-
Guinea, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia and tant ecosystem services, such as soil ero- We know that biodiversity is linked
Honduras to identify crop varieties that sion control, food and firewood. Diverse to all of these issues and that the same
are better suited to existing or pro- land use and livelihoods has allowed biodiverse principles can be helpful
jected conditions, providing farmers community members to spread risk and throughout the world. Biodiversity is
with seeds to test in their own fields, adapt to changing times and climate. a tool for sustainability and resilience,
and then working to strengthen local Strong collective action and knowledge and research can bring us the much-
seed systems so that farmers always exchange in the communities has led needed answers.
have access to the seeds that fit their to more sustainable farming practices
changing needs. Seeds for Needs uses throughout the landscape; and strong
modern Geographic Information Sys- seed networks have allowed farmers Bioversity International is a global
tems (GIS) technology to identify gene to have access to a wide range of agri- research-for-development organisa-
bank accessions that have the higher cultural diversity. Much of the adap- tion that investigates the conserva-
potential to be adapted to current and tive capacity of the Begnas landscape tion and use of agricultural and forest
future climatic conditions. The selected can also be attributed to strong local biodiversity “for improved nutrition,
accessions are tested in the field to bet- institutions and NGOs such as LI-BIRD livelihoods, sustainability, and produc-
ter characterise them under the present that have supported community-based tive and resilient ecosystems”. It is a
conditions. Men and women farmers biodiversity management over time. member of the CGIAR (Consultative
Group on International Agricultural
were asked to evaluate the accessions These strategies need to be developed
Research) Consortium.
to select those which better meet their to strengthen resilience through the sus-
➤ www.bioversityinternational.org
needs. Bioversity researchers developed tainable use of agricultural biodiversity.

26 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Focus

Tangible sustainability
Family farms are often associated with greater sustainability. But the definition
of sustainability is a highly disputable topic. The School of Agricultural, Forest
and Food Sciences (HAFL) in Switzerland has developed a method enabling a
more objective evaluation of sustainability in agriculture. Response-Inducing
Sustainability Evaluation (RISE) covers ten sustainability indicators and supplies the
foundation for agricultural advice.

Nowadays, there is general agree- been applied by various organisations The farms interviewed are given a
ment that only sustainable agriculture to hundreds of small, medium-sized and written assessment of their sustainabil-
will be capable of feeding the world’s large farms. The method has already ity and recommendations for action.
population without destroying the been applied in five continents, also By examining a group of representa-
environment and the natural resources. among large numbers of family farms tive farms, development projects can
However, opinions are divided on what in developing countries. Commissioned identify deficits and develop appropri-
sustainable agriculture should look by the German Federal Ministry for Eco- ate project or advisory strategies for
like. Everyone, ranging from grassroots nomic Cooperation and Development a larger number of farms in a given
organisations through farmers’ federa- (BMZ), GIZ has been working with RISE region.
tions to the manufacturers of pesticides since 2012, too. For this purpose, it has
and fertilisers, claims to be supporting acquired a licence from HAFL, and sev- By using reference and standard
sustainable agriculture. To some, only eral staff have been trained to use the values, no special measurements are
organic and /or smallholder agricul- method. required for the application of RISE as a
ture is sustainable, whereas others also rule; all results are based on interviews.
include industrialised agriculture. The method can be applied to any farm,
n One method for all farms regardless of its size, level of commer-
The reason why these views diverge cialisation and location. Each farm that
is that sustainability is defined in dif- The aim of RISE is to make the sus- has been examined receives swift feed-
ferent ways and different priorities are tainability of production more measur- back on the results that is combined
set. For example, the emphasis may be able and communicable. The examina- with suggestions for improvements.
more on ecological criteria or more on tion focuses on the farm. RISE evaluates Thus the farm manager benefits directly
economic criteria. This is why various the ecological, social and economic and can, should the need arise, intro-
initiatives are trying to enable an opti- dimensions of sustainability. The indi- duce measures to improve sustainabil-
mally objective and generally applica- cators used have been derived from ity. For each farm, a full day is required
ble evaluation of sustainability. One of the sustainability definitions
these initiatives was started by the Swiss of the United Nations Food
School of Agricultural, Forest and Food and Agriculture Organization
Sciences (HAFL) and has resulted in the (FAO) as a well as a large num-
development of the so-called Response- ber of scientific publications
Inducing Sustainability Evaluation (RISE). on the topic. This enables a by
RISE has been in use since 2000, and has and large objective and holis-
tic evaluation of sustainability.

Alexander Schöning RISE has not been con-

[email protected] ceived for the certification of
farms but supplies the founda-
Alberto Camacho
tions for agricultural advice.
[email protected]
Photo: E. Mill/giz

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale

Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH All RISE results are based on
Eschborn, Germany interviews with farmers.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 27
Focus
If RISE is applied repeatedly, it can also
RISE – four steps towards sustainability evaluation
be used for monitoring.
The four RISE application steps
The example of RISE application in
1 Preparing and 2 Entering the data the context of German development
conducting interviews and checking plausibility co-operation so far shows that farms in a
(3 hours) (1 hour) certain region often demonstrate similar
patterns, so that the number of samples
Monitoring can be kept small. Even though family
3 4 farms have been examined in most cases,
Data analysis and Feedback discussion/
sustainability levels are often poor. This is
preparing the feedback planning of measures
what the development projects address,
discussion (2 hours) (2 – 3 hours)
and they offer targeted support. In addi-
tion to advisory services for farms, RISE
The application of RISE is based on four steps (see Figure above). Activities centre can also supply valuable details for policy
on interviews with the farm manager and other people working at the farm (e. g. consulting. For example, if all enterprises
spouses, employees). The answers provided by the interviewees are entered into a in a region demonstrate poor sustain-
software that performs a sustainability assessment for ten indicators relating to the ability regarding certain parameters, this
economic, ecologic and social dimensions of sustainability with the aid of predefined may be an indicator for unfavourable
parameters (see Figure below). Before the interview is carried out, specified regional framework conditions.
data such as climate, average yield and average income has to be compiled, unless it is
already available in the RISE data bank.
The results of the analyses are summarised and represented in a polygon with the aid n Potential for improvements
of the RISE software (Figure below). A red line links up the values for the indicators.
The larger the area within the red line, the more sustainable the farm. Values in the
Even though RISE can be a great help
green area demonstrate a high level of sustainability. In addition, a detailed tabular
for farms, agricultural extension services
representation of the sustainability evaluation per parameter is compiled. With the use
and development co-operation pro-
of these representations, strategies can be developed to improve sustainability.
jects, applying the method in practice
A polygon resulting from a RISE evaluation still presents a number of challenges.
The HAFL has compiled a Code of Con-
Soil use
100 duct to ensure quality in the applica-
Farm management 80 Animal husbandry tion of RISE. For example, to apply the
60 method, users have to be trained by
Economic viability
40
Nutrient flows HAFL, and its first use in the field must be
20 Positive: Good performance accompanied by a HAFL staff member –
0 Critical: Further scrutiny
recommended this ensures a high standard in the appli-
Quality of life Water use Problematic: Need for action cation of RISE, but represents a fairly
Degree of sustainability elaborate procedure. Also, given that
Working conditions Energy & Climate HAFL capacities are limited, alternative
Biodiversity & Plant training models are currently being dis-
protection cussed. However, the biggest problem
that users refer to is the large amount
of time that the method requires. In
for the interview and the feedback dis- and the use of the results vary consider- addition, many farmers refuse to reveal
cussion. ably. As yet, the most extensive opera- confidential income and asset details.
tion has taken place in Bolivia, where And yet it is this information that plays
more than 200 representative farms an important role in assessing economic
n RISE in German development were analysed in an agricultural devel- sustainability. Moreover, some of the
co-operation opment programme. For this purpose, RISE questions do not seem to be suf-
project staff and agricultural extension ficiently adapted to smallholder agri-
So far, GIZ has applied RISE in seven employees were trained at local level in culture in developing countries. Based
countries: Bolivia, Nicaragua, Zimba- applying RISE. The results were made on feedback from the practical applica-
bwe, Ghana, Kirgizstan, Ecuador and use of to focus advice for the targeted tion of RISE, the HAFL is continuously
Tunisia. The extent of examinations enterprises on the important problems. improving the method.

28 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Opinion

Family farming –
a model with a future?
Is there good reason to make family farms a focus of global attention for a year? Or
is it not rather reckless to advocate a concept while completely disregarding the
fact that the necessary conditions are often not in place? A few entirely personal
thoughts on the International Year of Family Farming.

Initially it sounds like a good idea: an “International Year n A personal experience

of Family Farming”. The idea, then, is to promote a concept
which consumers, landscape designers, environmentalists, Having grown up on my parents’ farm holding in Schleswig-
climate researchers and many others associate with a “(more) Holstein in the north of Germany, after an agricultural appren-
ideal world” and “(more) vital” rural development; which is ticeship I initially worked for a few years on my parents‘ farm.
often thought of as a guaranteed route to the much-vaunted There followed university studies of Tropical and International
goals of sustainable development and food security. The Agronomy in Germany and England. Subsequently I worked
implication of the latter, however, is that family farming is for over twelve years in agricultural development projects in
not seen merely as an organisational model for society in Africa and Asia before working for the German Agricultural
rural regions but as an economic organisational unit, a sup- Society (DLG) in the field of international agribusiness co-
porting pillar contributing directly to the development of operation. Against the backdrop of this experience, when it
rural regions. comes to family farms I certainly have my own way of looking
at things. How did “our” family farm – which was of quite a
If this is the case, then is it enough to “celebrate” such a year manageable size – come into being, and how did it develop?
in order to encourage policy-makers to reconsider the merits of And which parameters contributed to this at the time?
family farming and thus position it as an engine of sustainable
rural development – in the hope that this will improve the living In post-war Germany, all essential commodities were in
conditions of farmers in developing and newly industrialising desperately short supply. The precious little that was avail-
countries? Many problems faced by farmers in these countries able was unaffordable; scarcity was the overriding principle.
today were just as familiar to family farms in Germany and the The owner of my parents’ family farm (my father) came back
European Union a few decades ago. This being the case, it is from the war after five years. During that time, his wife lived
worth taking a look at how these evolved, whether they con- on the farm with three children. Together with the last surviv-
tributed to rural development and, if so, over what period of ing elderly relative on my father’s side, they barely managed
time and under what enabling conditions. Now I can already the most necessary work to keep the farm running. The war
hear the objections – it’s wrong to make comparisons with years and the resultant need to help feed the extended family
developments in this country; the underlying conditions in depleted the substance of the farm’s capital.
industrialised and developing countries are too far apart; the
political framework conditions are too different, etc. – but still: After the war was over, solutions were sought to make
we can, and indeed should, learn from experience. Schleswig-Holstein’s agricultural holdings productive once
again and to improve the supply of food. At the same time,
the aim was to build a new livelihood base for a large number
of exiled farmers. After long negotiations, the result was that
the large estates in Schleswig-Holstein voluntarily provided
30,000 hectares of agricultural land for a resettlement pro-
gramme. In the course of the homesteading programmes for
exiled farmers from eastern territories, land reform was imple-
Karl-Martin Lüth mented which also included the relocation of urban farms,
Consultant including our family farm, to the countryside in 1949. A land
Liederbach, Germany settlement company valued the reformed land allocations
[email protected] in the form of land securities. The necessary long-term loans

Rural 21 – 02/2014 29
Opinion
which had to be serviced by each family farm were recorded were developed and surfaced in asphalt. The house was pro-
in the land registers. gressively enlarged and modernised. In 1957 the horses were
replaced with a brand-new all-wheel-drive tractor.
There were three “types” of farm holdings:
n “smallholdings” (Kleinsthofsiedlungen), only ever intended Up until the end of the 1970s, the then 25-hectare farm
as part-time livelihoods, was sufficient to support a family of five. However, this bur-
n “half farm holdings” (Halbbauernstellen) on which at least dened the family with an extremely high workload and tied
one family member should earn a living from something them completely to the farm, even the children, who were
other than the farm, and integrated into the farm’s routines like proper workers. With
n “full farm holdings” (Vollbauernstellen), like ours, where the onset of the 1980s, the underlying economic conditions
agriculture was the main source of income. for this family farm had deteriorated so much, mainly through
the assimilation of agricultural prices on the global market,
For my parents’ family farm it was a total new beginning. that soon the farm’s income barely sufficed to finance the
The new site was a specially consolidated plot of land, newly Altenteil, the maintenance agreed in cash and in kind to sup-
allocated as a relocated farm. At that time, access was via a port a farmer’s parents in old age in return for keeping the
sandy dirt track to the main road, which led to a small town farm in the family.
with a market just 5 kilometres away, with corn trade and
a dairy. (The nearest major city was Hamburg, around 100
kilometres away). The only vehicle the family owned was a n Lessons learned
two-horse open coach, with a simple coach box and a small
load-bed. The coach served as a “milk cart” for the daily So what was the driver of this agricultural (and rural) devel-
milking (done by hand), as a means of transporting anything opment process, which only prevailed for a certain period but
anywhere, but also for Sunday outings to visit relations. The nevertheless was relatively successful, and what conclusions
farm provided a living for the owner’s family including three can be drawn from it – against the background of my experi-
children. Two elderly relatives on my mother’s side not only ence in Africa and Asia – in relation to the IYFF?
drew expellees‘ pensions but also received old-age mainte-
nance in kind from the farm (Altenteil, see below). Up to the First of all, the following conditions must be met: soil and
end of the 1950s, the owner’s family was also supported by a climate – in whichever region of the world – must be suitable
housekeeping apprentice and a „young man”, who received to support agriculture. There must be existing agricultural
free board and lodging on the farm as well. Before very long, know-how, demand for agricultural products and a market
however, the farm was no longer in a position to support for them. Moreover, farming families must be willing to work
these workers’ wages. together to improve living conditions, assert their interests
and develop what is commonly known as “entrepreneurial
Over the years, the countryside farm turned into the ideal practice” – be it of the most basic standard. Once these factors
vision used in today’s food advertising: arable and grazing are in place, I see the following four points as the vital keys for
land, cart horses, dairy cows with offspring, sows with their positive development of agricultural holdings and rural areas:
own boar and fattening pens, laying hens, fattening geese,
guineafowl, ducks, a farm dog and a house dog, eleven cats 1. Land law, land use and long-term security of tenure (herit-
and the usual menagerie of small animals. The farm was able, acceptable as collateral)
worked by plough, harrow, seeder and reaper-binder, all 2. Infrastructure
horse-drawn. Hired labourers came to thresh the harvest 3. Market access reasonably close at hand, so as to have access
until 1961. As early as 1955 the first (second-hand) tractor to all kinds of inputs (even such simple items as nails or wire
was running on the farm. At the end of the 1950s the roads to fence in livestock and thus secure valuable property) and
be able to offer the farm’s own products and exchange
information
Homestead farm 4. Energy supply
in Germany
So what is the status regarding these points in the rural
developing regions of this world?

1. Even at the first point, we often draw a blank. How should

Photo: M. Lüth

a subsistence farmer or a smallholder develop and extend

his farm when he lives with the uncertainty that tomorrow,
or the day after, he may have to leave his land? Bigger,

30 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Opinion
Family farming in the Central
Mahakam area, a 24-hour boat
journey from the nearest market town
of Tenggarong, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia.

longer-term investments for the

future – and larger-scale plans, e.g.
for irrigation or drainage – are not
carried through under this uncer-
tainty.
2. Agricultural products are normally
bulky; transporting these to mar-
ket by rustic means over impass-
able terrain (a concrete exam-
ple from personal experience:
pushing rice sacks in a dugout
across swamplands) can be a sheer
Photo: M. Lüth

impossibility. Certainly a dealer

– a middleman – will also collect
goods from the farm; but because
he bears the cost and laborious
effort of transportation, he will drastically force down the n A brief conclusion
price. Then the farmer’s work no longer pays!
3. Market access is a very critical element in rural develop- The IYFF is a well-intentioned initiative and is, after all – as
ment. I have been in regions and villages in Africa and Asia the UN writes on its website – addressed to policy-makers.
without a market within a radius of hundreds of kilometres! Merely turning the focus on family farming is not enough,
Even small purchases were not possible. Everything had however. The fortunes and misfortunes of a family farm
to be procured from the provincial capital. A smallholder depend on local circumstances, the underlying conditions
cannot afford to go on shopping trips; nor does this task listed under points 1 to 4, and whether a region or country is
fit into his “entrepreneurial portfolio”. in a position to develop and establish these. These enabling
4. The speed and quality, the turnover and quantity of work conditions are existential for family farms. And this, in my view,
processes can only be improved if energy in some form is is the core problem: which developing or newly industrialising
applied, and this is no less true of small agricultural hold- country can pull that off, which politicians are strong enough
ings. Without an energy supply the productivity of the to campaign for it and unlock the resources? All of that has a
farmer’s family is limited to the number of hands or the great deal to do with good governance.
amount of animal power. It wears families out and holds
back their entrepreneurial engagement. Whether we like it or not: the global actors, the multina-
tional corporations which invest in agricultural production in
Of course there are many other factors like the agricultural developing and newly industrialising countries are so welcome
extension service (which, it is to be hoped, actually speaks with there because they bring everything with them. They commit
the farmers!), a functioning banking system with access to their own resources to financing the technology, the infra-
short-term and long-term loans, market information services, structure, the marketing, and so on. That leaves few opportu-
and communication, etc. The functionality of these additional nities for the family farming that is commonly considered so
development factors, however, is directly linked to the four desirable. Therefore another question that arises is whether it
points mentioned above. A loan system will only function if is defensible – in ethical terms, too – to advocate family farm-
corresponding securities can be lodged, such as land-title or ing for developing and newly industrialising countries and to
at least a long-term land-use right. A market information sys- urge farmers’ families into the entrepreneurial model of the
tem is only worth having if the market can be reached while family farm, knowing only too well that the necessary condi-
the information is still current. Costly energy use only makes tions are only met in rudimentary form or cannot be estab-
sense if the surplus harvest can be transported away without lished adequately. On the other hand, if the said enabling
undue effort. Naturally, a lobby or a mouthpiece – e.g. a farm- conditions are created and consistently fostered, then family
er’s organisation – is a helpful structure for asserting the sec- farming can certainly become a supporting pillar of sustain-
tor’s interests vis à vis other branches of a national economy. able rural development.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 31
International  Platform

Integrated Watershed Management –

an approach with a number of
stumbling-blocks
Integrated Watershed Management represents an
option for the management of water catchment areas.
However, what may sound good in theory often

Source: WWF Greater Mekong Programme

proves to be very difficult when it comes to practical
implementation, as an example from the Lower Mekong
Region shows.

The rice farmers in the community of is of considerable importance to these

Hoa Le, in Vietnam’s central highlands, countries. More than 80 per cent of the
agree that water scarcity on the one population in the Lower Mekong Basin Deforestation in the Mekong Region
hand and floods on the other are among depend on its resources. They use the 1974–2009.
the greatest challenges that farming in river for irrigation in farming and fisher-
the region has to cope with. However, ies, for navigation and transport and in
they realise that they are doing well in energy production. Up to 300 million compiled to optimise the water situ-
comparison to the people elsewhere in people in Southeast Asia live on the food ation in each pilot area. Taking good
the valley. The head of the community, produced here. Increasing industrialisa- practices into account, experts from the
who has to attend the talks for official tion and a growing tourism sector also education sector, civil society and the
reasons, is smiling happily, for after require much water. Often, however, authorities were trained while advice
all, the government built a dyke in the the use of the land and water resources was simultaneously provided on intro-
region some years back in order to pre- to meet this wide range of demands ducing IWSM in national structures.
vent flooding. In addition, a reservoir for does not fulfil the principles of sustain-
rice paddy irrigation has been enlarged, ability. Frequently, the negative effects
and the canals have been refurbished. of flawed management practices such n Identifying appropriate
Communicating with the government as soil degradation and water pollution solutions
authority at district level is said to work or the higher intensity and frequency of
well, and money, it is emphasised, gets flooding and droughts owing to climate Deforestation was one of the key
to where it is meant to go. change are not effectively addressed problems for the target group of the
due to a lack of co-ordinated manage- projects (see diagram above). Sensiti-
ment. sation campaigns conducted by staff
n IWSM is to accommodate a trained in IWSM have led to a decline
wide range of interests In order to promote a sustainable in deforestation aimed at creating crop-
handling of such problems, the pro- land in the region, but it is not only the
This interview was conducted dur- jects examined were to introduce the farmers who fell trees but above all the
ing the evaluation of two German pro- concept of Integrated Watershed Man- commercial timber industry. Timber
jects in the water sector in Cambodia, agement (IWSM, see Box on page 33), firms are destroying the livelihoods of
Laos, Thailand and Vietnam (see Box adapt it to local conditions and cre- farmers through what is often an ille-
on page 34). The Mekong River Basin ate the necessary preconditions for gal export of lucrative tropical timber.
its dissemination. This was to result in Moreover, it was reported that in the
improvements being achieved in co- 1990s, members of the Hmong minor-
SLE “Mekong” Team* operation between authorities, civil ity migrated from northern Vietnam to
Centre for Rural Development (SLE) society and citizens, initially in one pilot the central highlands and were now car-
Berlin, Germany water catchment area per country. At rying out slash-and-burn farming deep
[email protected] the same time, strategy plans were in the jungle.

32 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 International  Platform
Ethnic minorities were not reached
Integrated Watershed Management (IWSM)
by the sensitisation campaigns. For one
thing, they were not specially addressed An area in which all runoff goes to a common outlet is the definition of a watershed.
in the campaigns. Besides, the training The IWSM-approach promotes close co-operation between the authorities and the
material was not available in the lan- water users at this local level, with boundaries between political sectors and local
authorities often being crossed. Co-operation focuses on concrete problems in the wa-
guages required. Moreover, such train-
tershed. In this respect, IWSM is not a product but a process; its aim is not to provide a
ing can only make sense if alternatives to
specific blueprint for a given water management problem. Rather, it gives a broad set
the non-sustainable sources of income, of principles, tools, and guidelines to be tailored to the specific context of the area.
such as slash-and-burn farming, are
The projects at hand considered a watershed not simply as a small hydrological unit
presented. This is where, for example, but also as a socio-political-ecological entity which plays a crucial role in determin-
the integration of innovative financ- ing food as well as social and economic security and provides life support services to
ing mechanisms such as Payment for the rural population. Hence, human activity forms part of watersheds, and affects the
Environmental Services (PES), in which watersheds and vice versa.
people are paid for conserving the forest
as an ecosystem, would suggest itself.
In one concrete case, PES was referred had been no systematic, targeted sup- were, albeit reluctantly, co-ordinated
to in the training material, and a Viet- port of civil society at local level. Local with the irrigation system of the farmers.
namese non-governmental organisa- training and organisational consulting One interview partner assumes that the
tion was supported in implementing a measures could lead to more local par- resolution of the conflict was thanks to
PES system. ticipation in the political process and the civil servants taking influence.
hence to a use of finance focusing more
on citizens’ needs and less corruption.
n Involving civil society n Watershed Committees –
from the start There have been reports from some a tiger without teeth?
discussion partners at local level in Viet-
However, it has become apparent nam on successful problem solutions So this successful co-ordination of
again and again that efforts to conceive involving all stakeholders. In Krong Bong conflicting users’ interests was not
such plans to create alternative sources of District, there was a resource conflict directly due to the setting up of the local
income are frequently half-hearted. For between rice farmers and a hydro-elec- Watershed Committees. It was not only
example, in the community of Bantea tric plant. Damming and the spasmodic in Vietnam that the effectiveness of the
Srey in Cambodia, the villagers had been release of water complicated the system- Watershed Committees, which after all
retrained as vegetable growers by non- atic irrigation of the rice paddies further are one of the central institutions in the
governmental organisations. However, down the river. Following negotiations IWSM concept, showed weaknesses.
there was a lack not only of installations supervised by the authorities between In Thailand and Cambodia, the mem-
required to store the water needed for the plant operators and delegations of bers of the potential committees have
this venture but also of knowhow, the rice farmers, spills from the power station already been chosen. But they have no
participants in the scheme explained.
The corresponding projects run by the
district government were often poorly
Deforested hillsides
implemented, like in the case of a water in Laos.
reservoir, which was sited unfavourably
and had started to leak hardly had it
been built. Measures did not meet local
requirements, and residents were not
consulted or involved in activities.

This shows just how important the

promotion of civil society groups for the
political representation and advocacy of
local interests is in the success of Inte-
grated Watershed Management. In the
Photo: J. Ferguson

cases reviewed, some representatives of

government local authorities had been
invited to training measures. But there

Rural 21 – 02/2014 33
International  Platform
Focus group discussion with The effectiveness and sustainability
officials from the Krong Bong of the projects is also based on national
District. training institutions such as universities
as well as non-governmental educa-
nation and planning in terms tion centres having been integrated
of IWSM. However, the evalu- in the training measures. There, the
ation also showed that without IWSM approach and the correspond-
a formalisation and funding of ing methods continue to be taught
the NWG by national authori- and adapted to local conditions. The
ties, no further support of the authorities integrated in the projects
Photo: A. Kayumov IWSM approach was provided carry on using IWSM-related meth-
by the NWG. ods, and one often hears of a com-
mitment to involving all stakeholders
In spite of the poor effective- in the watershed more strongly. Also,
ness of the Watershed Commit- many interview partners praised the
money and “no stamps” enabling them tees, one is satisfied at district information portal mekonginfo.org
to do their work, a WSC co-ordinator level with what has been achieved so that had been developed in the course
reports. While committees had also far, above all with regard to awareness- of the project as well as the train-
been set up in the pilot regions in Laos, raising and capacity development. ing material prepared on the basis of
their influence “beyond planning” had Positive references are also made to insights gained from the pilot regions.
only been slight. Disputes between the advising the authorities on compiling However, it was emphasised that this
two districts responsible for the water- recommendations on settling water use material had to be translated into the
shed complicated an institutionalisation conflicts. A Thai civil servant explained languages spoken by the ethnic minori-
of the WSC in this case, and financing that the concept of Watershed Manage- ties and, very much in line with the
beyond the end of the project was not ment was already familiar. But through process-oriented IWSM approach, that
ensured. If the setting up of a WSC was co-operation with the Germans in the it required continuous updating.
successful, this frequently coincided context of the projects, the focus, which
with the involvement of strong leader- had previously been set more on tech- The example referred to at the
ship figures giving the committees suf- nical solutions, had now been comple- beginning of this article shows that a
ficient clout. Recruiting such leaders at mented by social aspects. In this man- lot still remains to be done. An inter-
all levels was part of the project strategy. ner, the role of the local population in view later on revealed that the dyke
planning and implementing IWSM that the discussion partners from Krong
measures was strengthened. Thus the Bong District had applauded because
n Weaknesses and success potentials of the sustainable use of bio- it secured their harvests had in fact
factors resources in the watershed could be worsened flooding in neighbouring
tapped more effectively. Lak District.
It was with this in mind that consul-
tations among the responsible minis-
Information
tries, e.g. of forestry, agriculture and
water, took place at national level in The Evaluation
National Working Groups (NWG). Key Evaluating was carried out from July till November 2013 and was commissioned by
figures from the local, sub-national and the GIZ Unit for Monitoring and Evaluation in co-operation with the Centre for Rural
national levels, some of them in sen- Development (SLE) at Humboldt University Berlin. Two projects run by GIZ (Gesell­
ior positions, got together regularly in schaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, formerly GTZ and InWEnt) on Integrated
Watershed Management were examined in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam:
these committees to discuss national
“Sustainable Management of Water Catchment Areas in the Lower Mekong Basin”
topics related to IWSM and exchange
(2002–2011) and “Potentials of Rural Areas in the Mekong Countries” (2005–2008).
information. Thanks to their (unpaid)
The Survey
involvement in the NWG, these change
What has remained? – An ex post Evaluation of Watershed Management in the Mekong
agents were supported in contribut-
Region; can be downloaded from: http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/series/sle/254/PDF/254.pdf
ing to a change in awareness in their
authorities. Since the first decade of *The Team
Jeremy Ferguson (Team Leader), Ekkehard Kürschner (Team Leader), David Bühlmeier,
the new millennium, sets of regulations
Niklas Cramer, Alexes Flevotomas, Abdurasul Kayumov, Margitta Minah, Anna Nie­
have been adopted in Cambodia, Laos
sing, Daniela Richter
and Vietnam that enable better co-ordi-

34 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 International  Platform

FlexiBiogas – a climate change

adaptation and mitigation technology
Access to modern renewable energy services are a key input to poverty eradication
and in ensuring food security. Biogas is a renewable energy option suited to provide
clean, modern and decentralised sources of energy. Portable systems, such as
FlexiBiogas, offer a lot of advantages over traditional fixed dome systems.

Today, 2.5 billion people rely on tra- human waste. Cost-effective technolo-
ditional biomass fuels (wood, charcoal, gies like biogas systems can stem meth-
and dung) as their principal source of ane emissions from livestock manure
energy for cooking and heating, and by recovering the gas and using it as
more than 80 per cent of them live in an energy source. The organic material
Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Women is inserted into a sealed digester, and in
are most affected by the consumption the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bac-
of firewood and charcoal. The smoke teria consume the organic matter to
inhaled from the combustion of these multiply and produce biogas which can
traditional biomass sources causes be piped directly to a cooking stove.
chronic respiratory diseases and eye
infections. The drudgeries related to In most of sub-Saharan Africa,
daily firewood collection lead to back biogas technologies (fixed dome and
pains and exhaustion. According to floating drum digesters) have been
Photo: IFAD

the World Health Organization (WHO), available since the 1950s. These two
more than one million people died main types of biogas system, which
from chronic obstructive respiratory have been implemented around the
Using the FlexiBiogas system, 1 000 litres
diseases (COPD) in 2011. of cooking gas can be generated from
world, require large quantities of
20 kg of fresh cow dung. bricks, concrete, and steel, making
Since May 2012, the International transportation to rural areas costly.
Fund for Agricultural Development Their construction depends on land
(IFAD) has been assessing the poten- These systems have been installed as security, skilled technicians, transport
tial of renewable energy technologies part of a project titled Making Biogas and logistics of building materials, all
(RETs) to provide clean, modern and Portable: Renewable Technologies for a leading to significant initial investment
decentralised sources of energy. One Greener Future, under the Initiative for costs of a thousand US dollars or more.
of the promising RETs identified is the Mainstreaming Innovation. The initia-
new-generation portable biogas sys- tive is funded through IFAD by the UK It is estimated that at least 18.5 mil-
tems, such as FlexiBiogas, developed Department for International Develop- lion African households have the tech-
by the Kenyan company Biogas Inter- ment. IFAD has also facilitated South- nical potential to implement biogas
national Limited (BIL). South co-operation between Kenyan digesters, and yet adoption rates
engineers and the Indian Institute of remain low.
Technology (IIT), which has provided
a platform for scaling up the system
Antonio Rota internationally. n FlexiBiogas: portable,
[email protected] expandable, efficient
Karan Sehgal
n The potential of biogas Biogas International (BIL) has
[email protected]
installed 200 FlexiBiogas systems in
International Fund for Agricultural Biogas is a renewable energy Kenya since 2011. Since
 April 2012,
Development – IFAD obtained from biodegradable organic IFAD has worked in partnership with
Rome, Italy material such as kitchen, animal and Biogas International to install nine sys-

Rural 21 – 02/2014 35
International  Platform
tems on dairy farms as part of the IFAD- Bioslurry is a good alternative to
Cow power
supported Smallholder Dairy Commer- chemical fertilisers and can support
cialisation Programme in Nakuru and One cow produces 15 to 30 kg of the rebuilding of soil health. One
four systems in an orphanage school dung every day. Estimates suggest underestimated income generation
in Naivasha. At the school, the sys- that about 20 kg of fresh cow dung opportunity is the promotion and use
tems use kitchen and human waste to will yield 1,000 litres of cooking gas in of organic fertiliser (bioslurry) from
produce electricity for lighting and to the FlexiBiogas system, enough for a livestock, kitchen and human waste
household of five to seven members.
provide Internet access. produced by the digesters which can
Adding an extra 20 kilogrammes of
increase soil fertility and reduce envi-
dung to the system will run a 5-horse-
The FlexiBiogas system is port- power engine for one hour. This could ronmental degradation (soil erosion
able and expandable. It has a shorter be coupled to an automotive alterna- and deforestation) and therefore ide-
retention period (the time it takes tor, which will charge a battery (using ally contribute to higher crop yields.
for organic material to break down) a chaff cutter) and a converter to run
than fixed dome systems. It consists small items such as lights, a computer Socioeconomic benefits. The results
of a plastic digester bag, similar to an or a television set. of the studies show that a regular sup-
open-ended pillow case, housed in a ply of biogas has reduced the daily
greenhouse tunnel. The tunnel acts like task of gathering firewood (espe-
an insulated jacket, trapping heat and n A whole range of benefits cially for women and girls). On aver-
keeping the temperature between 25 age about two hours a day are saved,
and 36 degrees Celsius. The combina- The FlexiBiogas system exemplifies providing more time for women and
tion of the tunnel and the plastic bag how the climate-energy-agriculture girls to engage in other activities such
increases the volume of gas production nexus can be harnessed to help rural as handicraft manufacture, livestock
and reduces retention time, ensuring Kenyans expand energy access, gener- maintenance, attending to chores,
a high rate of fermentation and gas ate income, preserve the environment, study, play and rest. The technology is
production. and bolster community resilience. user-friendly, allowing illiterate farmers
Additional social benefits include gen- to install, maintain, operate and trou-
The system has a comparative der empowerment, enhanced health, bleshoot effectively.
advantage over other biogas digesters and expanded educational opportu-
in rural areas as it can be transported nities. Studies in Kenya and Rwanda also
easily on a bike or donkey to remote note that on average, each farmer in
areas. Neither does it require skilled Lessons learned from the adop- the two countries has extended his or
labour such as bricklayers. The unit tion of FlexiBiogas biosystems have her cropping by 0.5 hectares because
can be installed by merely flattening been gathered throughout the past of the additional time made available.
the ground as opposed to transport- two years with the collaboration and Evidence shows that it became easier
ing gravel, stones, bricks, sand and support of IFAD investment projects to cook during the rainy season, when
cement, and it begins to produce suf- in Kenya, Rwanda, Orissa/India, and the kitchen was transferred indoors to
ficient volumes of biogas faster than in São Tomé e Príncipe. The new sys- protect the biogas stove. This is facili-
other systems. tems are proving to be a significantly tated by the fact that no bad odour is
better alternative than fixed dome associated with FlexiBiogas as it digests
In other words, the FlexiBiogas sys- systems. 100 per cent of the organic substrate.
tem has the potential to tap into rural Nor does it attract flies.
markets where firewood consumption Environmental benefits. From an
at household level is highest and leads environmental perspective, the initia- Additional economic benefits
to increased deforestation and land tive seeks to address climate change include improved health, bioslurry
degradation. With the adoption of mitigation and adaptation activities replacing chemical fertilisers, better
biogas, methane emissions, which are by reducing the level of greenhouse nutrition from home gardens using
22 times more damaging to the global gases released into the atmosphere. bioslurry and improved education of
atmosphere than CO2, can be reduced The main environmental benefits are children.
through better livestock manure man- reduced firewood consumption at
agement. In addition, the bioslurry is household level (2 kg per day) leading Technical benefits. Based on research
a good alternative to chemical fertilis- to decreases in deforestation and land and field surveys in Kenya and Rwanda,
ers and can support the rebuilding of degradation and reduced methane it was documented that traditional
soil health and reduce dependence on emissions from better livestock manure fixed dome systems are more expen-
fossil fuels. management. sive (1,200 to 1,800 US dollars) and

36 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 International  Platform
require three to six dairy cattle. Own- also improve homestead sanitation as teries must be considered. Secondly,
ership of land is a further pre-requisite, a result of better management of live- the actual reduction in firewood con-
and skilled labour is needed to install, stock manure. sumption in rural areas is inconsistent.
maintain and operate the biogas unit Although a large majority of users do
efficiently if long-term sustainability is in fact use firewood significantly less,
to be ensured. n Outlook some still prefer firewood for cooking.
In other instances, although farmers
The main technical advantages of The goal of promoting FlexiBiogas realise that they no longer need to use
FlexiBiogas systems include: by IFAD is to foster clean, modern and firewood, they still sell bundles to their
n Easy to transport (50 kg), and instal- decentralised sources of energy as neighbours as a source of income.
lation takes two to three hours as an alternative to traditional biomass
opposed to seven to ten days for the sources such as firewood and charcoal Nevertheless, the ‘One Cow model’
fixed dome. for cooking and kerosene for lighting. has the potential to create employment
n The system can work with different in rural areas and address two of the
types of organic feedstock that is With just one or two cows in an major problems in sub-Saharan Africa,
available locally. integrated farming system, the Flexi­ nutrition and the availability of renew-
n Cross-flow methodology ensures Biogas technology can provide 60 to able fuel, as well. IFAD is also playing a
that bioslurry is fully digested; there 100 kilogrammes of high-quality fer- crucial role in diffusion and scaling-up
is no residual methane or patho- tiliser, 1.2 cubic metres of biogas daily of proven strategies for strengthening
gens. for cooking and 12 litres of milk. IFAD’s national and regional policy frame-
n The system is expandable and can pilot project has opened up new chan- works. The biogas compression and
thus accommodate more energy nels and potential partnerships for bottling model that IFAD is piloting
requirements as needs and income globally testing the ‘One Cow model’ in Kenya jointly with supplementary
increase. (see Box on page 36). financing from the Government of
n Training of technicians to install and Finland is fostering regional and local
provide operation and maintenance In the long run, potential environ- renewable energy industries through
services is simple and done adopting mental risks must be considered in the capacity building of entrepreneurs,
a learning-by-doing approach. case of a more large-scale introduction thus stimulating investment in the
of FlexiBiogas systems. Firstly, the long- renewable energy sector and open-
Health benefits. The studies docu- term impact of the heavy use of plastic ing new frontiers for business devel-
ment that the FlexiBiogas systems and lead acid in automotive/solar bat- opment.
lead to reduced chronic
obstructive pulmonary
diseases (COPDs) and
eye infections by elimi-
nating smoke from the
kitchen. The daily diet can
be improved through bet-
ter home gardening using
bioslurry as a fertiliser lead-
ing to improved nutrition.
Adopting FlexiBiogas may

The biogas system brings

numerous advantages for
rural families. Women’s
firewood-gathering
workload is reduced,
bioslurry applications raise
harvest yields, bought-in
chemical fertilisers are no
longer needed. The money
Photo: IFAD

saved can be used for the

children’s schooling.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 37
International  Platform

Rebuilding soil natural capital

Throughout the world, demands on finite soil resources are ever increasing, and can
lead to irreversible soil degradation, as the soil is used beyond its “bio-capacity”.
A quarter of the inhabitated land area has already been affected by human-induced
soil degradation. Against this background, soil remediaton is becoming more and
more important. Focusing on the rehabilitation of oil-contaminated soil in Kuwait, the
following article shows how it works, and where the problems lie.

Soils and soil biodiversity are the Human-induced soil degradation has posed), sludge pits (recovered oil from
foundation of all terrestrial produc- affected 24 per cent of the inhabited spills/leaks is disposed), contaminated
tion systems that generate ecosystem land area. soil piles (oil-soaked soil); gatch quarry
services such as the provision of food, pits (for construction purposes), etc.
fodder, fibre, clean water and control The oil affected soil properties includ-
of greenhouse gases and crop pests. n Soil contamination in Kuwait ing physical, chemical, and geotech-
Soil contains an enormous diversity of nical properties. Contamination also
organisms. Soil biodiversity represents This holds also true for Kuwait. Over caused extensive plant and animal
a vast gene pool of potential value to 114 square kilometres of Kuwait’s soil mortality, seeped into the soil layers
humans, including new antibiotics and was damaged by crude oil released where it reached the freshwater aqui-
use in industrial goods. Soil biota con- when retreating Iraqi troops detonated fers in Kuwait and continues to impair
tributes to the delivery of all soil func- 798 oil wells in Kuwait in 1991. The flow ecosystem functioning. Hence, it was
tions and is responsible for global cycles of crude oil and seawater used to extin- recommended to remediate the con-
of carbon, water and nutrients. guish the burning oil wells accumulated taminated soil along with clearing these
in depressions in the desert areas, con- areas of UXO (Unexploded Ordnance)
But this precious resource is always taminating over 40 million cubic metres to reduce its impact on the environment
at risk from degradation – by ero- of soil. The historical legacy of Oil & Gas or use the contaminated soil for engi-
sion, salinity, contamination, nutrient Exploration & Production operations neering purposes.
depletion, desertification, deforesta- in Kuwait has also harmed the natural
tion, overgrazing and other results of desert environment, particularly the
mismanagement. Some 17 per cent soils. Around 6,840 contaminated sites n The SEED project
of the Earth’s land surface has already have been identified by the Kuwait
been strongly degraded, and the area Oil Company. Typical non-operational In 2012, the SEED (Sustainable Envi-
affected is still growing. Soil degrada- redundant polluted features include ronmental Economic Development)
tion ranks amongst the greatest envi- effluent pits (produced water is dis- project was launched for remediation
ronmental challenges, impacting soil
micro flora, water, biodiversity and
Nearly 7,000 contaminated sites have been identified by
emission of greenhouse gases. The the Kuwait Oil Company. Part of the land is now to be
magnitude of this threat starts from remediated through the SEED project.
local level, but has global implications,
bringing in social and political instability
and threatening pro-poor growth and
food production. An estimated 24 bil-
lion tons of fertile soil is lost each year.

Bedanga Bordoloi
[email protected]
Photo: B. Bordoloi

Etali Sarmah
[email protected]

Al Ahmadhi, Kuwait

38 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 International  Platform
of soil in the Burgan Oil Fields, consid-
Soil contamination and remediation projects
ered to be the world’s second largest
oilfield and containing most of Kuwait’s Accelerating industrialisation, intensified irrational exploitation of mineral resources
oil. The project, funded by the United and its related emissions, long-lasting irrigation with polluted water, atmospheric
Nations, covers remediation of various deposition triggered by human activities and the use of chemical fertiliser and chemi-
contaminated features of oilfield prop- cal pesticides have all severely aggravated soil contamination across the world. In
erties to acceptable levels and restoring China, 30 per cent of the usable land is considered contaminated. Soil remediation
ecological functions of the soil. It aims expenditures in China are predicted to reach 6.4 billion US dollars (USD) per year by
2015 or 15 per cent of the total USD 40 billion World Site Remediation Market that
to remediate approximately 0.9 mil-
year. Canada has begun the second phase of a 15-year plan to remediate 22,000 sites
lion cubic metres of soil and 0.16 mil-
of various size and type from small areas of soil contaminated by spilled fuel to very
lion cubic metres of sludge and recover
large abandoned mine sites that are contaminated by heavy metals and other toxic
0.8 million barrels of free phase oil by substances, requiring USD 7.7 billion. The cost of remediating Canadian soil and
2016. In total, 25 sites with an average water contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbon is estimated at USD 1 billion. The Rus-
area of 45,000 square metres are to be sian government has allocated USD 620 million for cleanup in three zones designated
remediated. as nature reserves. Taiwan’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified
more than 2,000 contaminated sites nationwide to date.
The pre-remediation phase of the Legislation relating to soil remediation is widespread, and there are efforts at local,
project included activities like radio- national and world level. Fundamental to these regulations are European Union Direc-
logical surveys, UXO/Explosive Ord- tives such as the Environmental Liability Directive, the Water Framework Directive
nance Disposal activities, installation of and the Soil Framework Directive, Superfund (United States), the Contaminated Land
groundwater monitoring wells for con- Management Act (New South Wales, Australia) and the Environmental Management
ducting Environmental impact assess- Act (Canada).
ment (EIA) studies and site characteri-
sation to estimate the actual volume
and type of contamination. The oil and residue or side-effects. In the first two ness of various remediation approaches
sludge existing in the features posed years of the SEED project, more than using the established native plant spe-
a challenge for activities like detecting 36,000 tonnes of contaminated soil was cies as performance indicators.
UXO and thus causing delays to depend- remediated by bioremediation, the tar-
ant activities like site characterisation. In get being 200,000 tonnes by the end Given ever-increasing global demand
the remediation phase, the project is uti- of the project. Thermal desorption tech- for commodities and soil ecosystem
lising a combination of technologies like nology utilises heat to increase the vola- services, improving soil management
soil washing, thermal desorption, and tility of contaminants such that they can could be a key opportunity for support-
bioremediation (in-situ and ex-situ) to be removed (separated) from the solid ing sustainable economic development.
clean up oil-contaminated soils. matrix (typically soil). The volatilised Remediation technologies like thermal
contaminants are then either collected desorption, soil washing, bioremedia-
or thermally destroyed. The Thermal tion etc. are critical to controlling soil
n Step-by-step soil improvement desorption units currently used reme- degradation, so that economic and
diate about 20–30 tonnes of soil per social development can be sustained.
Soil washing technology removes hour. Around 0.8 million cubic metres With growing pressure on land in the
contaminants from soils by dissolving of contaminated soil is to be remediated developing world, the economic value
and/or separating, suspending con- through the thermal desorption and of soil remediation is set to increase.
taminants on soil particles into the soil washing technology. Afterwards, However, various problems need to
wash water and by concentrating con- the features are to be backfilled with be tackled. In the SEED project, for
taminants into a smaller volume of soil remediated soil, and native plant spe- instance, the enormous quantity of fresh
through particle size separation. Biore- cies like Astragalus spinosus, Rhanterium water for the soil washing technology
mediation uses a consortium of crude epapposum, etc. are to be established poses a new challenge, and the project
oil-degrading bacteria derived from to initiate ecosystem recovery, reduce struggled to source water in summer
various naturally occurring and non- desertification and use the remediated months and had to scout for recycled
pathogenic bacterial cultures. Within soil for future engineering purposes. water.
four months, these biological organ-
isms eat up the contaminants (mostly The SEED project has proved success- The views expressed herein are the
organic compounds), convert them ful in repairing damage to the natural personal views of the authors and are
into carbon dioxide and clean up the landscapes. The project will be able to not intended to reflect the views of any
surrounding area without any harmful monitor and compare the effective- organisation.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 39
International  Platform
Boosting commercial sorghum production
and marketing with the “aggregator model”
How can the private sector contribute to the fight against hunger, poverty and malnutrition
in the remote areas of sub-Saharan Africa? This article looks at a model that has been
applied in Kenya and Tanzania, addressing the right tools, skills and knowledge to make
smallholder production a success.

Since 2009, Africa Harvest Biotech has shown that risk-averse smallholder Seed funding to work on the model
Foundation – in partnership with the farmers will first produce what satisfies came from the United Nations Devel-
International Crop Research Institute their household needs before turning to opment Programme (UNDP), through
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) – has markets. The value chain has to appeal the Africa Facility for Inclusive Markets
adapted various iterations of the “aggre- to these needs before commercialisation (AFIM) programme. The funding was
gator model” in increasing the produc- can be adopted. to kick-start activities such as commu-
tion and marketing of sorghum among nity mobilisation, producer groups for-
smallholder farmer groups in the Arid “Aggregator model” is a term which mation and initial training. The funds
and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) of Kenya originates from E-commerce, defining were also catalytic to the process of ini-
and Tanzania. The aim was to address a business model where a firm (that tial proof of the concept phase, which
barriers and bottlenecks along agri- does not produce or warehouse any involved piloting the model in Kenya
based value chains. The project used item) collects (aggregates) data and and Tanzania explained below. Other
the whole value chain (WVC) approach information on goods and/or services donors included the International Fund
to increase production and productivity from several competing sources at its for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
as well as to link smallholders to markets website. In our case, the model means and the European Union (EU).
for surplus produce. This is a sustain- a close co-operation of all stakeholders
able approach to household food and in the sorghum value chain. Adaptation
nutritional insecurity, incomes, natural ranges from direct intervention by Africa n The sorghum value chain
resource management and the over- Harvest in service provision to the cur- challenges
all development agenda. Smallholder rent iteration where an entrepreneurial
farmers were organised into develop- sorghum farmer or trader is identified The Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs)
ment and commercially focused small- and supported to provide both down- in Kenya and Tanzania are all remote
holder production and marketing groups stream (input services to farmers) and rural areas, lacking good infrastructure
(SHPMs). Using a market-pull strategy, upstream (linkage to market) services, (road and communication networks),
Africa Harvest worked with the SHPMs on a commercial basis. Our experience having limited options for livelihood
to align downstream value chain activi- is that this farmer or trader often starts support, and generally being neglected
ties to specific end-market demand as a community or opinion leader; as
parameters (variety, quality, quantity, the individual builds confidence and
The aggregator in Tharaka, Kenya, with
timeliness and consistency). The pro- business gains traction, the aggregator her tractor and thresher. Provision of
cess started with the identification of a is formalised into a business. input services as well as linkage to market
ready market where demand outstrips is part of the aggregator model.
supply, with the household nutritional
needs as a critical first stop. Experience

Daniel Kamanga
[email protected]

Doreen Marangu
Nehemiah Mburu
Photo: Africa Harvest

Florence Wambugu

Africa Harvest
Nairobi, Kenya

40 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 International  Platform
in development initiatives. Nonetheless,
Success factors
these areas have huge tracts of idle and
virgin land that is good for agriculture For the aggregator model to succeed, the following critical factors should be in place or
and get sufficient rain to sustain drought- be developed:
tolerant crops like sorghum, cowpea and n Willing commercial end-market players. In the case of sorghum in Kenya and Tanza-
others. Communities living in these areas nia, East African Breweries Limited (EABL) took a strategic decision to have sorghum
have limited options for commercial crop as part of its input in beer manufacturing.
production, given their over-reliance on n An entrepreneurial individual (a farmer and/or trader) willing to provide aggrega-
rainfed agriculture. With the right tools, tion services
technology, skills and knowledge, they n A network of sub-aggregators for services at village level.
can intensify production of cereals (like n A capacity building partner (“value chain champion”) to intermediate the process
sorghum) and pulses (e.g. cowpea). and ensure good governance in the value chain. Africa Harvest plays this role. This
partner is also involved in the provision of information and market intelligence and
The dispersed pattern of habitation may have to sustain activities before the aggregator is well entrenched. In addi-
and the dilapidated road networks in tion, Africa Harvest helps streamline value chain bottlenecks as they occur before
these rural areas do not attract the tra- handing over to other players/stakeholders, supporting government (e.g. county
ditional business person, who will seek government) in facilitating value chain activities from a policy point of view.
low transaction costs. Also, changing n Other service providers, including banks and microfinance institutions.
weather patterns and especially the
incidence of drought have rendered
these areas more disenfranchised given n limited capacity to operate as eco- tral point through which financial inter-
the dearth of risk mitigation tools and nomic units that appeal to value mediation as well as other value chain
limited knowledge and skills to enhance chain players, particularly large cor- enhancement interventions can be
adaptation and coping mechanisms. porations with an eye on the bottom directed to target smallholder farmers.
Yet these rural areas are home to 70 per line.
cent of the entire population in Africa In addition, the aggregator requires
and will continue to play a critical role in a system of sub-aggregators (such as
feeding rising populations in the future. n Adapting the model to cereal traders) scattered around the
This bottom of the pyramid opportunity sorghum production remote villages that provide sub-aggre-
offers a huge pool for potential buyers gation services (buying of marketable
of manufactured products and suppli- In the course of implementing vari- produce) for a fee. This helps to make
ers of inputs that should contribute to ous sorghum development projects, the entire system sustainable and inclu-
poverty eradication if well harnessed. the aggregator model was identified sive since packing the produce and
as a good option to address the gulf loading it onto trucks requires labour.
The main bottlenecks to raising pro- between end-user markets (excess It also ensures a good system through
duction and productivity in these ASAL demand) and smallholder farmers (lack- which seeds and other inputs can be
areas include: ing in capacity and motivation to pro- accessed in remote villages. In the
n limited to no access to inputs: duce for commercial markets). End user ideal situation, the aggregator should
improved variety seeds, information, markets require commercial quantities be empowered to provide all services
crop protection inputs, and financial of raw materials at reasonable input required by smallholder farms including
services; prices while farmers need access to extension, setting up of demonstration
n limited skills and knowledge in good inputs, information, capacity building, plots as well as banking facilities.
agronomic practices required to and aggregation of low produce quan-
exploit the full potential in improved tities into commercially feasible units as
inputs (particularly seeds); well as land preparation, harvesting and n Adding a nutrition component
n limited knowledge of market require- threshing facilities.
ments; The model could be enlarged by a
n limited knowledge in harvesting and The aggregator therefore interme- nutritional aspect: Adopting the pro-
post-harvesting management; diates the value chain at that remote duction of other drought-tolerant
n limited access to labour-saving location by providing access to inputs crops – particularly legumes and pulses
machinery for land preparation, har- required to increase production and – has the dual benefit of first providing
vesting and threshing, to minimise productivity, while facilitating access to a rotational crop for sorghum produc-
the drudgery of labour-intensive markets through their business develop- tion. This improves soil fertility and
agriculture; ment capacities. He also provides a cen- provides nutritional benefits through

Rural 21 – 02/2014 41
International  Platform
A sorghum demonstration n Enhanced awareness, among small-
plot in Tharaka, Kenya. The holder farmers, on the availability of
provision of improved seeds regional markets for sorghum grain
is one of the core aspects of
(15,000 farmers were reached by the
the sorghum development
projects. project);
n Access to improved seeds and other
inputs (including fertilisers) for 2,500
– opens up local econ- smallholder farmers in both Kenya
omies, improves nutri- and Tanzania;

Photo: Africa Harvest

tion of rural households n Enhanced capacity of these farmers
through consumption of to increase production and produc-
eggs and chicken meat, tivity in sorghum from 450 kg/acre
increases incomes from to 1,000 kg/acre (on average);
sale of chicken products n Increased quantity of sorghum grain
access to plant protein as well as vita- and improves the household asset base. reaching commercial markets by 129
mins and minerals from the edible Youth and women would particularly per cent – from 2,388 metric tons
leaves of these legumes. Cowpea is a benefit from this enterprise since it (MT) to 5,469 MT – in Kenya and
good example of such duality with its requires less input in terms of capital and Tanzania (through the aggregators);
leaves used as vegetables (vitamins and is easier to manage. Using sorghum as n Enhanced capacity of aggregators to
minerals) and the bean providing plant chicken feed would also open up entre- provide services to farmers through
protein. Here, the basket of choice for preneurial opportunities for local-level direct facilitation and linkage with
the farmers can be expanded to include industries to supply chicken farmers financial service providers. The total
an array of legumes and pulses that with feeds, further unlocking value for volume of sorghum grain delivered
are developed by the centres of the sorghum farmers. to East African Malting Limited (a
Consultative Group on International subsidiary of East African Breweries
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and Other alternatives could include the Limited, EABL) by the five aggregators
national agricultural research centres, introduction of dairy goats whose feed working with the project was 5,469
e.g. cowpea technologies developed would come from sorghum stovers MT. This grain had a market value of
by the International Institute of Tropi- while improving household nutrition over 2 million US dollars (USD). The
cal Agriculture (IITA). through milk production and increas- total amount made by smallholder
ing household assets (improved goats). farmers was over USD 1.5 million
Researchable areas could also An agro-forestry component using (72.7 % of the market value of the
include the use of bio-fertilisers in dual-purpose shrubs (e.g. calliandra grain traded), within twelve months
improving soil fertility/nitrogen fixa- and leucena) for fodder (goats) and of project implementation.
tion and how this could improve pro- soil fertility management can further
ductivity in sorghum. The aggrega- complement this diversification strat- These preliminary findings provide
tor would still provide the services of egy while enhancing natural resource evidence that the aggregator model has
linking SHPMs with improved quality management (soil fertility). the potential to catalyse improvements
seeds, training on best practices and and impact among smallholder farm-
onward linkage to markets for surplus ers involved in sorghum production in
produce. n Promising results ASALs. Corporations ought to play a
greater role in enhancing food security,
Between September 2012 and income generation and the reduction of
n Diversification of livelihoods August 2013, Africa Harvest carried malnutrition among the rural poor. The
out a pilot project on the efficacy of use of inclusive business models like the
The sorghum value chain also pro- the aggregator model in both coun- aggregator model to address barriers
vides a base for a number of other job tries in Kenya and Tanzania. The pilot and bottlenecks along agri-based value
creation avenues in rural settings. There was implemented among 2,500 small- chains should be promoted as they can
are good opportunities for livelihood holder farmers who had set aside a help unlock superior economic value,
diversification strategies through imple- minimum of three acres of land for provide much needed jobs for youth
mentation of an integrated farming sys- sorghum production (monocrop) and and women and improve livelihoods.
tems approach. Adding a component used inputs to increase productiv-
of short-cycle livestock – traditional ity. Key achievements from this pilot For more information:
as well as improved-chicken breeds were: ➤ http://africaharvest.org

42 Rural 21 – 02/2014
 Scientific World
In brief Imprint
Rural 21 –
n Increasing CO2 may threaten C4 plants concentrate CO2 inside the cell The International Journal
human nutrition for photosynthesis, and thus they might for Rural Development
A new study by the US-based Har- be expected to be less sensitive to extra- Published by:
vard School of Public Health (HSPH) cellular changes in CO2 concentration. DLG-Verlag GmbH
Frankfurt, Germany
concluded that, at the elevated lev- The researchers were surprised to
els of atmospheric CO2, anticipated find that zinc and iron varied substan- Advisory council:
Felix Fellmann, DEZA
by around 2050, crops that provide a tially across cultivars of rice. This finding Dr Reinhard Grandke, DLG
large share of the global population suggests that there could be an oppor- Dr Stefan Schmitz, BMZ
with most of their dietary zinc and iron tunity to breed reduced sensitivity to Christel Weller-Molongua, GIZ
will have significantly reduced concen- the effect of elevated CO2 into crop cul- Editorial committee:
trations of these nutrients. Given that tivars in the future. (HSPH/wi) Dr Michael Brüntrup, DIE
Lüder Cammann, GIZ
an estimated two billion people suffer
Dr Christine Chemnitz,
from zinc and iron deficiencies, result- n On the trail of cassava frog Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung
ing in a loss of 63 million life years annu- skin disease Karl-Martin Lüth, DLG
ally from malnutrition, the reduction Scientists at the International Center Prof. Dr Matin Qaim,
University of Göttingen
in these nutrients represents the most for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), in Cali/
significant health threat ever shown to Colombia, developed a diagnostic tech- Editor in chief:
Silvia Richter, [email protected]
be associated with climate change, the nique to identify the frogskin disease in
Editorial staff:
scientists of the study say. cassava. The new diagnostic method
Olive Bexten, [email protected]
“This study is the first to resolve the they developed relies on reverse tran- Ines Lechner, [email protected]
question of whether rising CO2 con- scription polymerase chain reaction (RT- Angelika Wilcke, [email protected]
centrations threaten human nutrition,” PCR) – a very sensitive technique that Editorial office:
said Samuel Myers, research scientist detects viral diseases based on low levels DLG-Verlag GmbH
Eschborner Landstraße 122
at HSPH, and the study’s lead author. of RNA molecules. Cassava frogskin dis-
60489 Frankfurt, Germany
The researchers analysed data involving ease (CFSD) is an economically important
Translated by:
41 cultivars (genotypes) of grains and root disease affecting cassava in several
Michael Gardner
legumes from the C3 and C4 functional South American countries. Propagated Christopher Hay
groups from seven different locations in clonally, the disease causes plants to Tazir International Services
Japan, Australia, and the United States. produce thin roots that accumulate little Distribution, advertising:
The level of CO2 across all seven sites was or no starch. Except in the case of some DLG-Verlag GmbH
Eschborner Landstraße 122
in the range of 546 to 586 parts per mil- cassava landraces, infected plants gener-
60489 Frankfurt, Germany
lion (ppm). The researchers tested the ally look vigorous, showing no noticeable
Layout:
nutrient concentrations of the edible disease symptoms in the stem or leaves. Petra Sarow,
portions of wheat and rice (C3 grains), Cassava growers don’t realise the plants Munich, Germany
maize and sorghum (C4 grains), and have been damaged until harvest. Printed by:
soybeans and field peas (C3 legumes). Since the 1970s, every five years or Brühlsche Universitäts-
The results showed a significant so, researchers in Latin America reported druckerei GmbH & Co KG
Wieseck, Am Urnenfeld 12
decrease in the concentrations of zinc, the presence of a different pathogen
35396 Gießen, Germany
iron, and protein in C3 grains. For exam- associated to CFSD, when in fact there
Rural 21 is published four times per year.
ple, concentrations in wheat grains has always been a mix of them infect- The subscription rate is 33.– Euro
were reduced by 9.3 per cent, 5.1 per ing a diseased plant. “With current (Germany), 37.– Euro (EU countries),
cent, and 6.3 per cent, respectively, techniques, we can detect all of them 51.– Euro (non-EU countries) and
compared with wheat grown at ambi- at once and focus on improving diag- 8.30 Euro per issue, plus postage.
All rights reserved. The contents may not
ent CO2. Zinc and iron were also sig- nostics and disease control. The RT-PCR be translated, reproduced in whole or in
nificantly reduced in legumes; protein protocol we developed is already con- part, nor may information be passed on
was not. C4 crops appeared to be less tributing to safer cassava germplasm to third parties without permission of the
publisher. Please direct all corres­pondence
affected by higher CO2, which is consist- exchange,” CIAT plant virologist Wilmer
to the editor in chief.
ent with underlying plant physiology, as Cuellar notes. (CIAT/wi)
The opinions expressed by the authors are
not necessarily those of the publisher or
the editor. The editor retains the right to
For a more comprehensive version of the articles: ➤ www.rural21.com make editorial changes.

Rural 21 – 02/2014 43
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