Chapter 3

Human
Factors
Introduction
Human factors is a broad field that examines the interaction
between people, machines, and the environment for the
purpose of improving performance and reducing errors. As
aircraft became more reliable and less prone to mechanical
failure, the percentage of accidents related to human factors
increased. Some aspect of human factors now accounts for
over 80 percent of all accidents. Pilots, who have a good
understanding of human factors, are better equipped to plan
and execute a safe and uneventful flight.

Flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) can

result in sensations that are misleading to the body’s sensory
system. A safe pilot needs to understand these sensations and
effectively counteract them. Instrument flying requires a pilot
to make decisions using all available resources.

The elements of human factors covered in this chapter include

sensory systems used for orientation and illusions in flight.
For more information about physiological and psychological
factors, medical factors, aeronautical decision-making
(ADM), and crew resource management (CRM), refer to the
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.

3-1
Sensory Systems for Orientation altitude does not restore a pilot’s vision in the same transitory
period used at the climb altitude.
Orientation is the awareness of the position of the aircraft
and of oneself in relation to a specific reference point.
The eye also has two blind spots. The day blind spot is the
Disorientation is the lack of orientation, and spatial
location on the light sensitive retina where the optic nerve
disorientation specifically refers to the lack of orientation
fiber bundle (which carries messages from the eye to the
with regard to position in space and to other objects.
brain) passes through. This location has no light receptors,
and a message cannot be created there to be sent to the brain.
Orientation is maintained through the body’s sensory organs
The night blind spot is due to a concentration of cones in an
in three areas: visual, vestibular, and postural. The eyes
area surrounding the fovea on the retina. Because there are
maintain visual orientation. The motion sensing system in
no rods in this area, direct vision on an object at night will
the inner ear maintains vestibular orientation. The nerves in
disappear. As a result, off-center viewing and scanning at
the skin, joints, and muscles of the body maintain postural
night is best for both obstacle avoidance and to maximize
orientation. When healthy human beings are in their natural
situational awareness (SA). (See the Pilot’s Handbook of
environment, these three systems work well. When the
Aeronautical Knowledge and the Aeronautical Information
human body is subjected to the forces of flight, these senses
Manual (AIM) for detailed reading.)
can provide misleading information. It is this misleading
information that causes pilots to become disoriented.
The brain also processes visual information based upon color,
relationship of colors, and vision from objects around us.
Eyes
Figure 3-1 demonstrates the visual processing of information.
Of all the senses, vision is most important in providing
The brain assigns color based on many items, to include an
information to maintain safe flight. Even though the human
object’s surroundings. In the figure below, the orange square
eye is optimized for day vision, it is also capable of vision
on the shaded side of the cube is actually the same color
in very low light environments. During the day, the eye uses
as the brown square in the center of the cube’s top face.
receptors called cones, while at night, vision is facilitated
by the use of rods. Both of
these provide a level of vision
optimized for the lighting
conditions that they were
intended. That is, cones are
ineffective at night and rods
are ineffective during the day.

Rods, which contain rhodopsin

(called visual purple), are
especially sensitive to light
and increased light washes out
the rhodopsin compromising
the night vision. Hence, when
strong light is momentarily
introduced at night, vision
may be totally ineffective as
the rods take time to become
effective again in darkness.
Smoking, alcohol, oxygen
deprivation, and age affect
vision, especially at night. It
should be noted that at night,
oxygen deprivation, such
as one caused from a climb
to a high altitude, causes a
significant reduction in vision.
A return back to the lower
Figure 3-1. Rubik’s cube graphic depicting the visual processing of information.

3-2
Isolating the orange square from surrounding influences necessary. White flight deck lighting (dim lighting) should
will reveal that it is actually brown. The application to a real be available when needed for map and instrument reading,
environment is evident when processing visual information especially under IMC conditions.
that is influenced by surroundings. The ability to pick out an
airport in varied terrain or another aircraft in a light haze are Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few
examples of problems with interpretation that make vigilance seconds of viewing a bright light, pilots should close one eye
all the more necessary. when using a light to preserve some degree of night vision.
During night flights in the vicinity of lightning, flight deck
Figure 3-2 illustrates problems with perception. Both tables lights should be turned up to help prevent loss of night vision
are the same lengths. Objects are easily misinterpreted in due to the bright flashes. Dark adaptation is also impaired by
size to include both length and width. Being accustomed to exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet, carbon
a 75-foot-wide runway on flat terrain is most likely going to monoxide inhaled through smoking, deficiency of Vitamin
influence a pilot’s perception of a wider runway on uneven A in the diet, and prolonged exposure to bright sunlight.
terrain simply because of the inherent processing experience.
During flight in visual meteorological conditions (VMC),
Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination the eyes are the major orientation source and usually
Under conditions of dim illumination, aeronautical charts and provide accurate and reliable information. Visual cues
aircraft instruments can become unreadable unless adequate usually prevail over false sensations from other sensory
flight deck lighting is available. In darkness, vision becomes systems. When these visual cues are taken away, as they
more sensitive to light. This process is called dark adaptation. are in IMC, false sensations can cause the pilot to quickly
Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is become disoriented.
required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can achieve a
moderate degree of dark adaptation within 20 minutes under An effective way to counter these false sensations is to
dim red flight deck lighting. recognize the problem, disregard the false sensations, rely
on the flight instruments, and use the eyes to determine the
Red light distorts colors (filters the red spectrum), especially aircraft attitude. The pilot must have an understanding of
on aeronautical charts, and makes it very difficult for the the problem and the skill to control the aircraft using only
eyes to focus on objects inside the aircraft. Pilots should instrument indications.
use it only where optimum outside night vision capability is

Figure 3-2. Shepard’s tables illustrating problems with perception as both tables are the same length.

3-3
Ears To illustrate what happens during a turn, visualize the
The inner ear has two major parts concerned with orientation: aircraft in straight-and-level flight. With no acceleration of
the semicircular canals and the otolith organs. [Figure 3-3] The the aircraft, the hair cells are upright, and the body senses
semicircular canals detect angular acceleration of the body, that no turn has occurred. Therefore, the position of the hair
while the otolith organs detect linear acceleration and gravity. cells and the actual sensation correspond.
The semicircular canals consist of three tubes at approximate
right angles to each other, each located on one of three axes: Placing the aircraft into a turn puts the semicircular canal and
pitch, roll, or yaw as illustrated in Figure 3-4. Each canal is its fluid into motion, with the fluid within the semicircular
filled with a fluid called endolymph fluid. In the center of canal lagging behind the accelerated canal walls. [Figure 3-5]
the canal is the cupola, a gelatinous structure that rests upon This lag creates a relative movement of the fluid within the
sensory hairs located at the end of the vestibular nerves. It canal. The canal wall and the cupula move in the opposite
is the movement of these hairs within the fluid that causes direction from the motion of the fluid.
sensations of motion.
The brain interprets the movement of the hairs to be a turn in
Because of the friction between the fluid and the canal, it the same direction as the canal wall. The body correctly senses
may take about 15–20 seconds for the fluid in the ear canal that a turn is being made. If the turn continues at a constant
to reach the same speed as the canal’s motion. rate for several seconds or longer, the motion of the fluid in

Semicircular canals Tubular ducts

containing endolymph
The motion sensing system is
Utricle
located in each inner ear in the
approximate position shown. Saccule

Cochlea

Ampullae
Semicircular canals Cupola
Ampulla of a
semicircular Otolith organ
canal
Cupola

Sensory hairs

Filaments of hair cells

Hair cells
Endolymph fluid
Vestibular nerve Vestibular nerve

Figure 3-3. Inner ear orientation.

YAW The semicircular tubes are

arranged at approximately
right angles to each other, in
the roll, pitch, and yaw axes.
ROLL
PITC
H

Bone

PITC
ROLL H
Ear canal
Eardrum
YAW Eustachian tube

Figure 3-4. Angular acceleration and the semicircular tubes.

3-4
 Endolymph Cupola

Tube

No turning Start of turn Constant rate turn Turn stopped

No sensation. Sensation of turning No sensation after fluid Sensation of turning in
as moving fluid deflects accelerates to same opposite direction as moving
hairs. speed as tube wall. fluid deflects hairs in opposite
direction.

Figure 3-5. Angular acceleration.

the canals catches up with the canal walls. The hairs are no
longer bent, and the brain receives the false impression that
turning has stopped. Thus, the position of the hair cells and
the resulting sensation during a prolonged, constant turn in
either direction results in the false sensation of no turn.
Normal
When the aircraft returns to straight-and-level flight, the fluid
in the canal moves briefly in the opposite direction. This sends
a signal to the brain that is falsely interpreted as movement
in the opposite direction. In an attempt to correct the falsely
perceived turn, the pilot may reenter the turn placing the
aircraft in an out-of-control situation.
Head tilted back
The otolith organs detect linear acceleration and gravity in a
similar way. Instead of being filled with a fluid, a gelatinous
membrane containing chalk-like crystals covers the sensory
hairs. When the pilot tilts his or her head, the weight of these
crystals causes this membrane to shift due to gravity, and
the sensory hairs detect this shift. The brain orients this new
position to what it perceives as vertical. Acceleration and Accelerating
deceleration also cause the membrane to shift in a similar
manner. Forward acceleration gives the illusion of the head Figure 3-6. Linear acceleration.
tilting backward. [Figure 3-6] As a result, during takeoff and
while accelerating, the pilot may sense a steeper than normal Illusions Leading to Spatial
climb resulting in a tendency to nose-down. Disorientation
The sensory system responsible for most of the illusions
Nerves leading to spatial disorientation is the vestibular system.
Nerves in the body’s skin, muscles, and joints constantly Visual illusions can also cause spatial disorientation.
send signals to the brain, which signals the body’s relation to
gravity. These signals tell the pilot his or her current position. Vestibular Illusions
Acceleration is felt as the pilot is pushed back into the seat. The Leans
Forces, created in turns, can lead to false sensations of the A condition called “the leans” can result when a banked
true direction of gravity and may give the pilot a false sense attitude, to the left for example, may be entered too slowly
of which way is up. to set in motion the fluid in the “roll” semicircular tubes.
[Figure 3-5] An abrupt correction of this attitude sets the
Uncoordinated turns, especially climbing turns, can cause fluid in motion, creating the illusion of a banked attitude to
misleading signals to be sent to the brain. Skids and slips the right. The disoriented pilot may make the error of rolling
give the sensation of banking or tilting. Turbulence can create the aircraft into the original left banked attitude, or if level
motions that confuse the brain as well. Pilots need to be aware flight is maintained, feel compelled to lean in the perceived
that fatigue or illness can exacerbate these sensations and vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
ultimately lead to subtle incapacitation.

3-5
Coriolis Illusion attempt to climb or stop the descent. This action tightens the
The coriolis illusion occurs when a pilot has been in a turn spiral and increases the loss of altitude; hence, this illusion is
long enough for the fluid in the ear canal to move at the same referred to as a graveyard spiral. [Figure 3-7] At some point,
speed as the canal. A movement of the head in a different this could lead to a loss of control by the pilot.
plane, such as looking at something in a different part of the
flight deck, may set the fluid moving and create the illusion Somatogravic Illusion
of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis. A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during takeoff,
This action causes the pilot to think the aircraft is doing a stimulates the otolith organs in the same way as tilting the
maneuver that it is not. The disoriented pilot may maneuver head backwards. This action creates the somatogravic illusion
the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to correct of being in a nose-up attitude, especially in situations without
the aircraft’s perceived attitude. good visual references. The disoriented pilot may push the
aircraft into a nose-low or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration
For this reason, it is important that pilots develop an by quick reduction of the throttle(s) can have the opposite
instrument cross-check or scan that involves minimal effect with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a
head movement. Take care when retrieving charts and nose-up or stall attitude.
other objects in the flight deck—if something is dropped,
retrieve it with minimal head movement and be alert for Inversion Illusion
the coriolis illusion. An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight can
stimulate the otolith organs enough to create the illusion of
Graveyard Spiral tumbling backwards or inversion illusion. The disoriented
As in other illusions, a pilot in a prolonged coordinated, pilot may push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude,
constant-rate turn, will have the illusion of not turning. During possibly intensifying this illusion.
the recovery to level flight, the pilot experiences the sensation
of turning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot may Elevator Illusion
return the aircraft to its original turn. Because an aircraft tends An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in
to lose altitude in turns unless the pilot compensates for the an updraft, can stimulate the otolith organs to create the
loss in lift, the pilot may notice a loss of altitude. The absence illusion of being in a climb. This is called elevator illusion.
of any sensation of turning creates the illusion of being in a The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low
level descent. The pilot may pull back on the controls in an

Correct path
Graveyard spin

Graveyard spiral

Figure 3-7. Graveyard spiral.

3-6
attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually the brain on a constant basis. “Seat of the pants” flying is
in a downdraft, has the opposite effect with the disoriented largely dependent upon these signals. Used in conjunction
pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up attitude. with visual and vestibular clues, these sensations can be
fairly reliable. However, because of the forces acting upon
Visual Illusions the body in certain flight situations, many false sensations
Visual illusions are especially hazardous because pilots rely can occur due to acceleration forces overpowering gravity.
on their eyes for correct information. Two illusions that lead [Figure 3-8] These situations include uncoordinated turns,
to spatial disorientation, false horizon and autokinesis, are climbing turns, and turbulence.
concerned with only the visual system.
Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation
False Horizon There are a number of controlled aircraft maneuvers a pilot
A sloping cloud formation, an obscured horizon, an aurora can perform to experiment with spatial disorientation. While
borealis, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, each maneuver normally creates a specific illusion, any false
and certain geometric patterns of ground lights can provide sensation is an effective demonstration of disorientation. Thus,
inaccurate visual information, or false horizon, for aligning even if there is no sensation during any of these maneuvers,
the aircraft correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented the absence of sensation is still an effective demonstration
pilot may place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude. in that it shows the inability to detect bank or roll. There are
several objectives in demonstrating these various maneuvers.
Autokinesis 1. They teach pilots to understand the susceptibility of
In the dark, a stationary light will appear to move about when the human system to spatial disorientation.
stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot could lose
2. They demonstrate that judgments of aircraft attitude
control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the false
based on bodily sensations are frequently false.
movements of this light called autokinesis.
3. They help lessen the occurrence and degree of
Postural Considerations disorientation through a better understanding of the
relationship between aircraft motion, head movements,
The postural system sends signals from the skin, joints, and
and resulting disorientation.
muscles to the brain that are interpreted in relation to the
Earth’s gravitational pull. These signals determine posture. 4. They help instill a greater confidence in relying on
Inputs from each movement update the body’s position to flight instruments for assessing true aircraft attitude.

Level Coordinated turn Pull out

Level skid Forward slip Uncoordinated turn

Skid, slip, and uncoordinated turns feel alike.

Pilots feel they are being forced sideways in their seat.

Figure 3-8. Sensations from centrifugal force.

3-7
A pilot should not attempt any of these maneuvers at immediately returns his or her head to an upright position.
low altitudes or in the absence of an instructor pilot or an The instructor pilot should time the maneuver so the roll is
appropriate safety pilot. stopped as the pilot returns his or her head upright. An intense
disorientation is usually produced by this maneuver, and the
Climbing While Accelerating pilot experiences the sensation of falling downward into the
With the pilot’s eyes closed, the instructor pilot maintains direction of the roll.
approach airspeed in a straight-and-level attitude for several
seconds, and then accelerates while maintaining straight- In the descriptions of these maneuvers, the instructor pilot is
and-level attitude. The usual illusion during this maneuver, doing the flying, but having the pilot do the flying can also
without visual references, is that the aircraft is climbing. be a very effective demonstration. The pilot should close his
or her eyes and tilt their head to one side. The instructor pilot
Climbing While Turning tells the pilot what control inputs to perform. The pilot then
With the pilot’s eyes still closed and the aircraft in a straight- attempts to establish the correct attitude or control input with
and-level attitude, the instructor pilot now executes, with a eyes closed and head tilted. While it is clear the pilot has no
relatively slow entry, a well-coordinated turn of about 1.5 idea of the actual attitude, he or she will react to what the
positive G (approximately 50° bank) for 90°. While in the senses are saying. After a short time, the pilot will become
turn, without outside visual references and under the effect of disoriented, and the instructor pilot then tells the pilot to
the slight positive G, the usual illusion produced is that of a look up and recover. The benefit of this exercise is the pilot
climb. Upon sensing the climb, the pilot should immediately experiences the disorientation while flying the aircraft.
open the eyes and see that a slowly established, coordinated
turn produces the same feeling as a climb. Coping with Spatial Disorientation
To prevent illusions and their potentially disastrous
Diving While Turning
consequences, pilots can:
Repeating the previous procedure, with the exception that
the pilot’s eyes should be kept closed until recovery from 1. Understand the causes of these illusions and remain
the turn is approximately one-half completed can create this constantly alert for them. Take the opportunity to
sensation. With the eyes closed, the usual illusion is that the understand and then experience spatial disorientation
aircraft is diving. illusions in a device, such as a Barany chair, a
Vertigon, or a Virtual Reality Spatial Disorientation
Tilting to Right or Left Demonstrator.
While in a straight-and-level attitude, with the pilot’s eyes 2. Always obtain and understand preflight weather
closed, the instructor pilot executes a moderate or slight briefings.
skid to the left with wings level. This creates the illusion of
3. Before flying in marginal visibility (less than 3 miles)
the body being tilted to the right. The same illusion can be
or where a visible horizon is not evident such as flight
sensed with a skid to the right with wings level, except the
over open water during the night, obtain training and
body feels it is being tilted to the left.
maintain proficiency in airplane control by reference
to instruments.
Reversal of Motion
This illusion can be demonstrated in any of the three planes of 4. Do not continue flight into adverse weather conditions
motion. While straight and level, with the pilot’s eyes closed, or into dusk or darkness unless proficient in the use of
the instructor pilot smoothly and positively rolls the aircraft flight instruments. If intending to fly at night, maintain
to approximately a 45° bank attitude. This creates the illusion night-flight currency and proficiency. Include cross-
of a strong sense of rotation in the opposite direction. After country and local operations at various airfields.
this illusion is noted, the pilot should open his or her eyes 5. Ensure that when outside visual references are used,
and observe that the aircraft is in a banked attitude. they are reliable, fixed points on the Earth’s surface.
6. Avoid sudden head movement, particularly during
Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane
takeoffs, turns, and approaches to landing.
This maneuver may produce extreme disorientation. While
in straight-and-level flight, the pilot should sit normally, 7. Be physically tuned for flight into reduced visibility.
either with eyes closed or gaze lowered to the floor. The Ensure proper rest, adequate diet, and, if flying at
instructor pilot starts a positive, coordinated roll toward a night, allow for night adaptation. Remember that
30° or 40° angle of bank. As this is in progress, the pilot illness, medication, alcohol, fatigue, sleep loss, and
tilts his or her head forward, looks to the right or left, then

3-8
 mild hypoxia are likely to increase susceptibility to Water Refraction
spatial disorientation. Rain on the windscreen can create an illusion of being at a
8. Most importantly, become proficient in the use of higher altitude due to the horizon appearing lower than it is.
flight instruments and rely upon them. Trust the This can result in the pilot flying a lower approach.
instruments and disregard your sensory perceptions.
Haze
The sensations that lead to illusions during instrument Atmospheric haze can create an illusion of being at a greater
flight conditions are normal perceptions experienced by distance and height from the runway. As a result, the pilot
pilots. These undesirable sensations cannot be completely has a tendency to be low on the approach. Conversely,
prevented, but through training and awareness, pilots can extremely clear air (clear bright conditions of a high attitude
ignore or suppress them by developing absolute reliance airport) can give the pilot the illusion of being closer than
on the flight instruments. As pilots gain proficiency in he or she actually is, resulting in a high approach that may
instrument flying, they become less susceptible to these cause an overshoot or go around. The diffusion of light due
illusions and their effects. to water particles on the windshield can adversely affect
depth perception. The lights and terrain features normally
Optical Illusions used to gauge height during landing become less effective
for the pilot.
Of the senses, vision is the most important for safe
flight. However, various terrain features and atmospheric
Fog
conditions can create optical illusions. These illusions
Flying into fog can create an illusion of pitching up. Pilots
are primarily associated with landing. Since pilots
who do not recognize this illusion often steepen the approach
must transition from reliance on instruments to visual
quite abruptly.
cues outside the flight deck for landing at the end of an
instrument approach, it is imperative they be aware of the
Ground Lighting Illusions
potential problems associated with these illusions and take
appropriate corrective action. The major illusions leading Lights along a straight path, such as a road or lights on
to landing errors are described below. moving trains, can be mistaken for runway and approach
lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems,
Runway Width Illusion especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding
terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the
A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion the
runway. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is, especially
often fly a higher approach.
when runway length-to-width relationships are comparable.
[Figure 3-9A] The pilot who does not recognize this illusion
will fly a lower approach with the risk of striking objects
How To Prevent Landing Errors Due to
Optical Illusions
along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than-usual
runway can have the opposite effect with the risk of leveling To prevent these illusions and their potentially hazardous
out high and landing hard or overshooting the runway. consequences, pilots can:
1. Anticipate the possibility of visual illusions during
Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion approaches to unfamiliar airports, particularly at night
An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both can create or in adverse weather conditions. Consult airport
an illusion the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually diagrams and the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
is. [Figure 3-9B] The pilot who does not recognize this for information on runway slope, terrain, and lighting.
illusion will fly a lower approach. Downsloping runways and
2. Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially
downsloping approach terrain can have the opposite effect.
during all approaches, day and night.
Featureless Terrain Illusion 3. If possible, conduct aerial visual inspection of
An absence of surrounding ground features, as in an unfamiliar airports before landing.
overwater approach, over darkened areas, or terrain made 4. Use Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or
featureless by snow, can create an illusion the aircraft is at Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems
a higher altitude than it actually is. This illusion, sometimes for a visual reference or an electronic glideslope,
referred to as the “black hole approach,” causes pilots to fly whenever they are available.
a lower approach than is desired.

3-9
 Narrower runway Wider runway Figure 3-9A
Runway width illusion
• A narrower-than-usual runway can
created an illusion that the aircraft
is higher than it actually is, leading
h
to a lower approach.
roac
App oach
mal al Appr
Nor Norm • A wider-than-usual runway can
create an illusion that the aircraft is
25

25
lower than it actually is, leading to
a higher approach.

Narrower runway Wider runway

25 25

Downsloping runway Upsloping runway Figure 3-9B

Runway slope illusion

• A downsloping runway can create

the illusion that the aircraft is lower
than it actually is, leading to a
ach higher approach.
pro
mal Ap
Nor ach
Normal Appro • An upsloping runway can create
25

the illusion that the aircraft is higher

25

than it actually is, leading to a lower

approach.

Downsloping runway Upsloping runway

Normal approach
Approach due to illusion

Figure 3-9. Runway width and slope illusions.

5. Utilize the visual descent point (VDP) found on many

nonprecision instrument approach procedure charts.
6. Recognize that the chances of being involved in an
approach accident increase when some emergency or
other activity distracts from usual procedures.
7. Maintain optimum proficiency in landing procedures.

3-10
Chapter 4

Aerodynamic
Factors
Introduction
Several factors affect aircraft performance including the
atmosphere, aerodynamics, and aircraft icing. Pilots need an
understanding of these factors for a sound basis for prediction
of aircraft response to control inputs, especially with regard
to instrument approaches, while holding, and when operating
at reduced airspeed in instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC). Although these factors are important to the pilot flying
visual flight rules (VFR), they must be even more thoroughly
understood by the pilot operating under instrument flight
rules (IFR). Instrument pilots rely strictly on instrument
indications to precisely control the aircraft; therefore, they
must have a solid understanding of basic aerodynamic
principles in order to make accurate judgments regarding
aircraft control inputs.

4-1
The Wing
To understand aerodynamic forces, a pilot needs to L R
understand basic terminology associated with airfoils.
Figure 4-1 illustrates a typical airfoil.
Ch
ord
The chord line is the straight line intersecting the leading line
and trailing edges of the airfoil, and the term chord refers
MC/4
to the chord line longitudinal length (length as viewed from C/4 D
the side).
C
The mean camber is a line located halfway between the
upper and lower surfaces. Viewing the wing edgewise, the
mean camber connects with the chord line at each end. The Relative wind
V
mean camber is important because it assists in determining
aerodynamic qualities of an airfoil. The measurement of Figure 4-2. Angle of attack and relative wind.
the maximum camber; inclusive of both the displacement
of the mean camber line and its linear measurement from
the end of the chord line, provide properties useful in Flightpath is the course or track along which the aircraft is
evaluating airfoils. flying or is intended to be flown.

Review of Basic Aerodynamics The Four Forces

The instrument pilot must understand the relationship The four basic forces [Figure 4-3] acting upon an aircraft in
and differences between several factors that affect the flight are lift, weight, thrust, and drag.
performance of an aircraft in flight. Also, it is crucial to
understand how the aircraft reacts to various control and Lift
power changes, because the environment in which instrument Lift is a component of the total aerodynamic force on an
pilots fly has inherent hazards not found in visual flying. The airfoil and acts perpendicular to the relative wind. Relative
basis for this understanding is found in the four forces acting wind is the direction of the airflow with respect to an airfoil.
on an aircraft and Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. This force acts straight up from the average (called mean)
center of pressure (CP), which is called the center of lift. It
Relative Wind is the direction of the airflow with respect to should be noted that it is a point along the chord line of an
an airfoil. airfoil through which all aerodynamic forces are considered
to act. The magnitude of lift varies proportionately with
Angle of Attack (AOA) is the acute angle measured between speed, air density, shape and size of the airfoil, and AOA.
the relative wind, or flightpath and the chord of the airfoil. During straight-and-level flight, lift and weight are equal.
[Figure 4-2]

Mean camber line Upper camber

Leading edge Mean chord line Lower camber Trailing edge

Figure 4-1. The airfoil.

4-2
 Right aileron

Lift
Pi
tc
h
Horizontal Vertical
stabilizer stabilizer

Rudder

x Drag

Roll
Thrust
Elevator
Left
Wing aileron

Yaw
z y

Weight
Figure 4-3. The four forces and three axes of rotation.

Weight • Skin Friction Drag

Weight is the force exerted by an aircraft from the pull of Covering the entire “wetted” surface of the aircraft is a thin
gravity. It acts on an aircraft through its center of gravity (CG) layer of air called a boundary layer. The air molecules on the
and is straight down. This should not be confused with the surface have zero velocity in relation to the surface; however,
center of lift, which can be significantly different from the the layer just above moves over the stagnant molecules
CG. As an aircraft is descending, weight is greater than lift. below because it is pulled along by a third layer close to
the free stream of air. The velocities of the layers increase
Thrust as the distance from the surface increases until free stream
Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/ velocity is reached, but all are affected by the free stream.
propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. The distance (total) between the skin surface and where free
As a general rule, it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis. stream velocity is reached is called the boundary layer. At
subsonic levels the cumulative layers are about the thickness
Drag of a playing card, yet their motion sliding over one another
creates a drag force. This force retards motion due to the
Drag is the net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative
viscosity of the air and is called skin friction drag. Because
wind and is generally a sum of two components: induced
skin friction drag is related to a large surface area its affect
drag and parasite drag.
on smaller aircraft is small versus large transport aircraft
where skin friction drag may be considerable.
Induced Drag
Induced drag is caused from the creation of lift and increases • Interference Drag
with AOA. Therefore, if the wing is not producing lift, induced
Interference drag is generated by the collision of airstreams
drag is zero. Conversely, induced drag decreases with airspeed.
creating eddy currents, turbulence, or restrictions to smooth
flow. For instance, the airflow around a fuselage and around
Parasite Drag
the wing meet at some point, usually near the wing’s root.
Parasite drag is all drag not caused from the production of These airflows interfere with each other causing a greater drag
lift. Parasite drag is created by displacement of air by the than the individual values. This is often the case when external
aircraft, turbulence generated by the airfoil, and the hindrance items are placed on an aircraft. That is, the drag of each item
of airflow as it passes over the surface of the aircraft or individually, added to that of the aircraft, are less than that
components. All of these forces create drag not from the of the two items when allowed to interfere with one another.
production of lift but the movement of an object through an
air mass. Parasite drag increases with speed and includes skin
friction drag, interference drag, and form drag.

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