Autonomous re-naturalization of cities in a context of degrowth

Maria Espín 1

Independent Researcher, Spain

Abstract
Planetary urbanization is considered to be one of the leading causes of the current global process of the
degradation of nature, and a reduction in urban consumption becomes, therefore, a crucial goal for degrowth.
Three fundamental premises underly an investigation of these issues. Firstly, territorial management underpins
global environmental justice through the implementation of conservation policies; Secondly, degrowth
narratives must operate in the urban context; and thirdly, there is a need for a paradigm shift at an economic,
social and nature-relational level. This article presents two research approaches. Firstly, it sets out a theoretical
framework in the field of 'urban degrowth', collecting arguments from political ecology, urban planning, deep
ecology and degrowth thinking; and secondly, it proposes a preliminary line of investigation towards the process
of urban de-occupation and re-naturalization through a bibliographic analysis of urban-ecological variables
fostering natural recovery. The aim of the study is to stir up discussion about urban degrowth, as an essential
mechanism to counter increasing land consumption, and global habitat and biodiversity loss. Anthropized
landscapes require care for nature, conservation, collective action and initiatives at the practical and
experimental level, and further research.
Key words: degrowth, urban degrowth, planetary urbanization, paradigm-shift, spontaneous plant colonization

Résumé
L'urbanisation de la planète est considérée comme l'une des principales causes du processus mondial actuel de
dégradation de la nature, et une réduction de la consommation urbaine devient donc un objectif crucial de la
décroissance. Trois prémisses fondamentales sous-tendent l'étude de ces questions. Premièrement, la gestion
territoriale sous-tend la justice environnementale mondiale par la mise en œuvre de politiques de conservation;
deuxièmement, les récits de décroissance doivent s'inscrire dans le contexte urbain; et troisièmement, un
changement de paradigme est nécessaire au niveau économique, social et relationnel avec la nature. Cet article
présente deux approches de recherche. Premièrement, il établit un cadre théorique dans le domaine de la
"décroissance urbaine", en rassemblant des arguments issus de l'écologie politique, de l'urbanisme, de l'écologie
profonde et de la pensée de la décroissance; et deuxièmement, il propose une ligne d'investigation préliminaire
vers le processus de désoccupation et de re-naturalisation urbaine à travers une analyse bibliographique des
variables urbano-écologiques favorisant la récupération naturelle. L'objectif de cette étude est de susciter un
débat sur la décroissance urbaine, en tant que mécanisme essentiel pour contrer la consommation croissante de
terres et la perte globale d'habitat et de biodiversité. Les paysages anthropisés nécessitent de prendre soin de la
nature, de la conserver, de mener des actions et des initiatives collectives au niveau pratique et experimental, et
de plus amples recherches.
Mots clés: décroissance, décroissance urbaine, urbanisation planétaire, changement de paradigme, colonisation
végétale spontanée

1
Maria Espín, independent researcher, Spain. Email [email protected]. Acknowledgements: The author would
like to specially thank to Simon Batterbury and Judith Krauss for their support, reviews and editing work on the manuscript;
to Federico Demaria and Clara Montaner for having endorsed the aim of the research from the very beginning and for their
constructive reviews; to two anonymous referees; to James W. Venner and Neil Clifford for their contributions for linguistic
revision. To all participants who directly or indirectly contributed to the completion of this work. And to all the inspiring
people I have met along the way, who with their deeds maintain my confidence that a human reality deeply connected with
nature is more than possible.
Espín Autonomous urban re-naturalization

Resumen
La urbanización planetaria es considerada una de las causas principales del actual proceso global de degradación
de la naturaleza. La reducción del consumo urbano se convierte, por lo tanto, en un objetivo fundamental en un
contexto de decrecimiento para un futuro inmediato. El razonamiento de este artículo se construye en base a
tres premisas principales. En primer lugar, la gestión territorial juega un papel fundamental en la justicia
ambiental a través de la implementación de políticas de conservación; en segundo lugar, la necesidad de
respuesta de las narrativas del decrecimiento en el contexto urbano; y en tercer lugar, la necesidad de un cambio
de paradigma a nivel económico, social y de relación con la naturaleza. Asimismo, este artículo presenta dos
enfoques de investigación. En primer lugar, establece un marco teórico en el campo del "decrecimiento urbano",
recogiendo argumentos de la ecología política, la planificación urbana, la ecología profunda y el movimiento
del decrecimiento; y en segundo lugar, propone una línea preliminar de investigación hacia el proceso de
desocupación y renaturalización urbana mediante un análisis bibliográfico de variables urbano-ecológicas que
favorecen la recuperación natural. El objetivo del artículo es levantar discusión sobre el decrecimiento urbano,
como campo fundamental para afrontar el actual proceso de aumento del consumo de territorio y su consecuente
pérdida global de hábitat y biodiversidad; además de elevar la conciencia sobre el cuidado y la conservación de
la naturaleza en paisajes antropizados a través de fomentar una mayor investigación académica en el campo,
así como el apoyo necesario de acciones e iniciativas colectivas a nivel práctico y experimental.
Palabras clave: decrecimiento, decrecimiento urbano, urbanización planetaria, cambio de paradigma,
colonización vegetal espontánea

1. Introduction
This article questions the current growth discourse paradigm, and its manifestation in urban planning,
calling for a deep ecological approach to the urban field. To develop alternatives requires the implementation
of urban degrowth. I use a similar urban analytical methodology that has been shaping cities over previous
decades, but I include a major focus on fostering 'natural recovery' in the urban context.
I begin with a multidisciplinary review of degrowth and urban studies, deep ecology, and political
ecology. A degrowth discourse materializes physically in the urban context, through urban de-occupation and
by considering the intrinsic value of nature. I then ask: what ecological variables could influence the process of
spontaneous plant colonization in cities? Can we apply knowledge of ecological and urban variables in a real
process of urban degrowth? I describe these ecological variables, using three studies, and map them.
The aim is to link several fields of research, and in particular, urban degrowth and deep ecology. Political
change can be articulated through ecological discourse, and knowledge of the ecological dynamics of the non-
human in cities could be applied more appropriately in urban management to foster a real urban degrowth
process. The present article sets out the preliminary steps to orient further research in this field.

2. Key concepts

Degrowth and the urban

The logic of infinite growth has been jeopardized by decades-old evidence that the relentless production
of the current economic system has far exceeded the capacity for regeneration of natural processes (Latouche,
2007), seriously threatening and overrunning the seven planetary boundaries of the Earth System (Rockström
et al., 2009). Among them, biodiversity loss has been vastly transgressed, leading to the mass extinction of a
variety of living forms. There are inter- and intra-generational environmental costs to humans, and also to other
species (Martínez-Alier et al., 2014). Ecological realities, still ignored by the mainstream as an inherent
consequence of the current socioeconomic model, have led to increasing interest in the 'degrowth' movement
(Latouche, 2007; Demaria et al., 2013; D'Alisa et al., 2014). Nourished by grassroots projects and decisions, it
argues that reducing Western consumption is required to diminish demand for natural resources, also reducing
breaches of human rights where resources are extracted are produced, now concentrated in the Global South
(Martínez-Alier et al., 2014). Degrowth initiatives address global environmental justice by promoting greater
local and sustainable use of resources.

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Planetary urbanization, as part of an uneven but global transformation process (Roy, 2016), is a key
component of the Anthropocene transition, and of economic growth (Barau & Ludin, 2012; Pincetl, 2017;
Elmqvist et al., 2021). Urbanization drives global ecological change (Swyngedouw & Kaika, 2014; Seto et al.,
2013). It mobilizes nature socially, physically transforming it (Swyngedouw & Kaika, 2014; Tzaninis et al.,
2021). Urbanization is also multi-scalar (Keil, 2003), a combined political-economic and socio-environmental
project (Swyngedouw & Kaika, 2014). Key issues are the intrinsic relationship between the urban and the
interests of the state (Lefebvre, 1970); the blurred boundary between architectural forms and maintenance of
order (Davis, 1992); and how urban areas are key sites for concentrating capital and global economic
development (Pincetl, 2017).

Power relations and rights to nature

Political ecology, in its simplest form, interrogates competition for access and control of natural
resources, led by social actors with asymmetrical political power (Bryant & Bailey, 1997). Some authors argue
that conservation policies establish exclusionary rights to resources as they are often implemented by powerful
social and institutional actors (Vaccaro et al., 2013). Therefore, they represent a tool to control nature, socially
and politically (Bromley, 1991). Indeed the dominant utilitarian theories behind conservation justice (Sikor et
al., 2014) are theories that focus exclusively on improving overall human well-being (Chan & Satterfield, 2013).
A utilitarian relationship towards nature does not consider the rights of multi-species. And hence,
following political ecological reasoning, embedding a multi-species approach of justice in conservation (Sikor
et al., 2014), this article exposes an even more complex level of asymmetrical access to natural resources, as
environmental justice includes non-human species (Shoreman-Ouimet & Kopnina, 2015). Recent studies
highlight the more-than-human ecological processes happening within cities, and the unsettling of traditional
understandings of cities as ontological entities separated from nature. These are concerns of urban political
ecology (Tzaninis et al., 2021). If there is a "right to the city" (Lefebvre, 1970), then whose rights, and which
city? The recovery of nature within the city suggests 1) cohabitation with many other different living entities,
shifting the nature-relational paradigm from hierarchies to webs (Capra, 1997); and 2) urban degrowth as a
crucial process for the recovery of fertile soil and habitats in urbanized landscapes. The traditional conception
of cities, as entities separated from nature, becomes blurred by a multi-species approach, which comprehends
land and landscapes as a set of complex living processes and beings.

Urban degrowth and spontaneous re-naturalization

The major assumptions guiding this study are:

1. Biodiversity conservation in a global scale is urgently needed in order to maintain the world
as we know it (Wilson, 1993). The liberation of enough land for other living beings to exist
is a fundamental action to tackle extinction.
2. Biodiversity loss is the consequence of the global processes of planetary urbanization and
anthropogenic transformation of landscapes. Cities are the key sites where anthropogenic
ecosystems can be conciliated and opened to other species, aided by degrowth.
3. There are intrinsic natural dynamics of change in every living entity or system, that a non-
instrumentalist and multi-species approach requires in urbanized landscapes (Callicott, 1980;
Leopold, 1949).

Urban degrowth and 'spontaneous re-naturalization' are complementary (Figure 1). Urban degrowth
permits the spatial application of the principles of the degrowth movement in planning urban space, but the
need for a dialogue between degrowth and urban planning has been largely neglected in existing degrowth

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narratives (Xue, 2021). Some studies have been published in the last few years addressing this recent field of
research (Xue, 2015, 2021; Florentin, 2018; Lehtinen, 2018; Nelson & Schneider, 2018; Trainer 2019; Cristiano
et al., 2020; Cucca & Friesenecker, 2021), and a review (Krähmer 2022). Wächter (2013) and Xue (2021)
highlight the potential for urban planning to provide spatial instruments in a degrowth transformation, hence
facilitating a down-scaling of the economy with environmental benefits and potentially, urban de-occupation.
The second term, spontaneous re-naturalization, refers to the ecological dynamics of spontaneous plant
colonization, and the recovery of nature itself. These two concepts complement each other and set a preliminary
line of investigation towards the potential for spontaneous re-naturalization of the urban landscape.

Figure 1: The concepts of urban degrowth and spontaneous re-naturalization.

2. Methodology
In order to identify the main ecological variables that foster natural recovery (e.g spontaneous plant
colonization) in the built environment, my literature review develops the findings from the following three
studies, to guide a mapping and GIS exercise discussed later:

• 'Lichens and higher plants on stone: a review' (Lisci et al., 2003);

• 'Typologie de l'implantation de la flore spontanée en ville dense, regard croisé écologue-
architecte' (Lagurgue et al., 2019), and
• 'Evaluation of natural colonization of cementitious materials: Effect of bioreceptivity
and environmental conditions' (Manso et al., 2015).

These three articles focus on spontaneous plant colonization in the urban environment, and were chosen as
lenses through which to understand the intrinsic potential of this process in cities. The study by Lisci et al.
(2003) is focused on the settling of lichens and higher plants in archaeological sites around the Mediterranean,
with the aim of preventing and controlling damage to buildings. The study by Lagurgue et al. (2019) links the
architectural characteristics and the surrounding features (orientation, light, water and wind exposure) of non-
historic buildings in Paris to the functional traits of spontaneous vegetation (its establishment, development and
interactions). The study by Manso et al. (2015) is focused on the spontaneous colonization by bacteria and fungi
on different kinds of concrete, in three locations with contrasting climatic conditions (Barcelona, Montseny and
Ghent). The authors aim to foster more research on construction materials that can stimulate biological growth.
Each study offers some conclusions about the ecological conditions that favor spontaneous plant colonization
in different urban contexts.
The variables assessed, which determine the direction of a spontaneous restoration process, can be
classified into the four following categories:

a. environmental conditions;
b. physical characteristics;
c. vegetation structure;
d. anthropogenic or anthropic pressures.

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Table 1 presents a list of the selected variables, with a description referring to the findings from each of the
three studies regarding the corresponding variable. In order to address How to apply the knowledge of such
variables in a real process of urban degrowth?, the last part of the study presents a mapping of the assessed
variables in the village of Montblanc in Catalunya, as an example of an urban settlement (Figure 2). The
mapping was done using of the Topographic Map of Catalunya 1:25000 (2005-2016), the Geologic Map of
Catalunya 1:250.000, and historical aerial images, all of them retrieved from Institut Cartogràfic i Geològic de
Catalunya. The assessed variables are represented in four maps (Figure 2), following the same categories
presented in Table 1.

3. Theoretical framework

What is nature?
Habitat loss, triggered by land-use change, is considered the main driver of terrestrial biodiversity
decline globally (Pimm & Raven, 2000; Foley et al., 2005; Jantz et al., 2015). It is expected that by 2030, more
than 25% of all endangered or critically endangered species will be threatened by urban expansion (Seto et al.,
2012; Güneralp & Seto, 2013; Elmqvist et al., 2013). The current pace of land exploitation threatens the survival
of half of all species by 2100 (Vettese, 2018).
Land, in all its intrinsic complexity, is not an empty resource for future exploitation. There are two
controls needed. Firstly, an agreement on land governance for planetary conservation (Huang et al., 2018) is
urgently needed although its form is still much debated. The "Half-Earth" program (Wilson, 2016), is to foster
a global network of wilderness left as nature's domain, extending over half the land surface of the planet.
Supporters of natural geo-engineering at a global scale have also favored such an approach (Vettese, 2018).
Wilson argues the half-Earth model would stabilize habitat for more than 80% of species (Wilson, 2016), but
the concept is heavily critiqued by prominent political ecologists, who deem it unrealistic, failing to blame or
punish the real culprits found in the expanding capitalist economies of the Global North, and distrustful of
human capabilities in the Global South (Kothari 2021). This is particularly the case on lands managed for
millennia by indigenous groups (Büscher, et al., 2017). Secondly, a redefinition of values commonly attributed
to nature becomes crucial in order to embody the aforementioned purpose: What category of "rights" do all
species that inhabit a specific territory have in order to be preserved? The concept of ecosystem services 2,
broadly used in the field of territorial management, focuses its key target on improving human well-being. Such
an approach underpins the prevailing instrumentalist relationship with nature, on which the process of urban
expansion relies. This process allows the transformation from material natures into "seemingly self-expanding
circulations of fictitious financial capital" (Swyngedouw & Kaika, 2014).
There are other concepts in the field of environmental economics that try to assess nature's value in a
very different way: non-use value is defined as "the benefit arising from knowledge that nature exists and will
continue to exist" (Davidson, 2013); and intrinsic value, "the right not to be treated as mere means to other
ends" (Davidson, 2013). These refer to nature's mere existence without relying on human understanding of it.
According to different authors the subject of these "rights" varies from "all experiencing subjects of a life"
(Regan, 1987), "all individual living entities" (Taylor, 1986) or "ecological wholes such as species, communities
and ecosystems" (Callicott, 1980; Leopold, 1949). Also, the term Wild Law (Cullinan, 2003) embeds the rights
of nature and all its elements in law and governance. From this broader point of view, decisions such as land
conversion would not be acceptable, since an economic valuation of nature is only feasible from a narrow
human perspective (Davidson, 2013).
Similarly, the introductory remark with which Rabhi (2008) starts the Charte internationale pour la terre
et l'humanisme, sets as a fundamental premise the necessity to take care of the planet, and also to respect any
other form of life. The 2010 Cochabamba Conference for Climate Justice included as a demand, the universal
declaration of rights of Mother Earth to ensure harmony with nature (Martínez-Alier et al., 2014). At the same

2
Ecosystem services are defined as "the aspects of ecosystems utilized (actively or passively) to produce human well-being"
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

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time in the field of Deep Ecology, Naess (1973) insisted on the interconnection of all phenomena in the
biosphere, and the interdependence of everything which is part of it, and hence the assumption of a shift from
hierarchies to webs for social organization (Capra, 1997). The concept of "multi-species sustainability" assumes
the necessity of recognizing the interdependence of the needs of multiple species for current and future
generations (Rupprecht et al., 2020). This would be a major paradigm shift, accompanied by an economic,
ecological and social transition. Or even more, as Berry (1984) argued "Any recovery of the natural world in
all its splendor will require not only a new economic system, but also an experience of profound conversion in
the psychic structure of the human being."
Due to the strong and extended impact of humankind on Earth over the last few decades, "wild nature"
– the pristine nature exempt from any human intervention (Naess, 1973) – has been considered extinct by some
authors (Witoszek, 1996; Riechmann, 2020). However, Naess (1973) also identified the existence of
"autonomous nature", defined as a healthy, diverse and functional nature that keeps the basic interactions within
an ecosystem. Recalling this distinction, urbanized landscapes can also be conceived as shelters for autonomous
natures, which to a certain extent can be considered congruent with human presence. Urban species are mostly
cultivated, domesticated and opportunistic. They establish in small patches which can be surrounded by
different ecosystems, and with which constant interaction occurs. Unlike mostly native species which belong
to more steady, old and unaltered ecosystems, urban species do not receive a consistent ecological value from
the mainstream anthropocentric conservation stance. However, the right to life of all species and living forms
must be cherished, while recognizing the harshness of planetary Anthropogenic assaults, as well as the current
difficulty of preserving a human-unaltered state of nature. The universal right of every life form to unfold and
to retain intrinsic value should be respected (Naess, 1990). Moreover, urban-nature patches also provide habitats
for the fulfilling of ecological functions (Deng & Jim, 2017).
Some ecologists have begun to question the long-accepted assumptions regarding the ecological
condition of urban areas, and are suggesting more accurate ways of studying them (Burkholder, 2012). The
potential for cities to develop wildlife habitats has already been studied by many authors (Spirn, 1984; Hough,
1995; Le Roux, 2014; Deng & Jim, 2017), and urban wilderness is now also a part of the urban agenda (Kowarik,
2018). In their study on spontaneous plant colonization on green roofs, Deng and Jim (2017) confirm the
potential for urban ecology and biodiversity enhancement and conservation in densely developed urban areas.
Also, Clergeau (2015) sustains the definition of a "new urban biodiversity" to refer to a group of species which
have not co-evolved together but can fulfill a function within the urban ecosystem (Arrif et al., 2011; Juvillà et
al., 2019; Lagurgue et al., 2019; Deng & Jim, 2017). This new urban biodiversity approach considers all kinds
of "autonomous natural" gaps, existing in the built environment: parks, public and private gardens, brown-fields,
road verges… And these have been given different names: Espaces à caractère naturel (Lagurgue et al., 2019);
Urban Green Spaces (Deng & Jim, 2017); and Tiers Paysage (Clément, 2004). Assuming a broader multi-
species approach (Shingne, 2020), it is important to highlight that these natural gaps don't need to have a precise
dimension which could be considered significant by planners: rather, all gap sizes are potential niches for the
establishment and development of other living entities.

What is the urban?

Urbanization refers to the increase of percentage of population living in urban areas and to the total area
occupied by urban settlements (United Nations, 2019). Between 2001 and 2018 the global built-up area
increased at a rate of 0.7ht per day (Sun et al., 2020), a fact which might produce a near tripling in the global
urban land area between 2000 and 2030 (Angel et al., 2011b; Seto et al., 2012). Moreover, studies show that
today cities are growing notably faster in terms of land area than population (Angel et al., 2011a; Elmqvist et
al., 2013; Liu et al., 2020), indicating that urban land area already exceeds what is needed to sustain population
growth (Liu et al., 2020).
The instrumentalist relationship with nature emerges from 20th century discourses that circulated on the
roles of city and nature. As Swyngedouw and Kaika (2014) argue, during this period urban thought and practice
"became de-naturalized." The Industrial Revolution accelerated landscape changes and their sociological
consequences, and the main role of urban planning consisted of providing a solution for spreading disease and

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meeting productivity needs (Juvillà et al., 2019). Architecture and urban planning were crucial disciplines
treating urban regions as a tabula rasa. The principles of modern architecture, exposed in "The functional city",
the 1933 Charter of Athens, identified the four functions of the city: dwelling, recreation, work and
transportation. At the same time, perhaps due to conceptions dating from the romantic-idealistic movement,
nature was conceived as something wild and pristine, relegated to the outskirts (Swyngedouw & Kaika, 2014),
away from the frenetic pace of the growing city (Escobar, 2019). This fact was described by Lefebvre (1970)
as a process of dominance, replacing the chaos of natural spontaneity with a coherent rationality. Swyngedouw
& Kaika (2014) see it as an expression of the intrinsic "success" of the human over the non-human. The
rationality of the 1933 Charter of Athens and Corbusier-inspired urban expansion plans have endured for
decades (Martínez-Alier, 1995). Burdett (2018) also refers to urban rational paradigms as "an urban ideological
model 80 years out-of-date" and Sennett (2015) refers to the contemporary city when he says, "we don't make
them true to life, we make them into factories." The ensuing exponential growth in production, population and
settlement globally, which has contributed to the current ecological crisis, is manifested in the built environment
with, for example, flooding, droughts, the urban heat island effect, air pollution and concentration of disease
vectors (Foley et al., 2005; Juvillà et al., 2019).
Although mainstream urban planning still does not deal effectively with a slowdown in urban
metabolism (Lehtinen, 2018), urban initiatives have been implemented in order to face climatic change. In this
sense, the EU Green Infrastructure strategy 3 aims to provide a wide range of ecosystem services (including
climate mitigation and adaptation) flowing from nature to people, through the implementation of the Natura
2000 Network (European Commission, 2019). Other initiatives, such as smart cities 4 are focused on providing
solutions to mitigate the urban consequences of the rapid increase of urban population in recent and upcoming
decades. The SDG 11 5, which seeks to introduce sustainability and resilience as a basis for urban development,
is conceived primarily from a social and human well-being perspective. In the same way, the global 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development assumes that economic, technological and social progress can occur in
harmony with nature 6 (United Nations, 2015).
The underlying reasoning behind these initiatives overlooks the fundamental causes of the current
environmental-urban situation, skirting around long-term sustainability, and retaining a utilitarian view of
nature. Similarly, 'sustainable development' doesn't contemplate a reduction in production, consumption and
urban expansion, but signals that economic growth and innovation can address their effects. In a nutshell, the
utilitarian valuation of nature (Rupprecht et al., 2020) is still prevalent in the mainstream in Western countries,
and the ultimate goal is to enhance human well-being, while fostering economic growth, under a society
characterized by a growth discourse. Krähmer (2021) highlights the ineffectiveness of a green city strategy for
ecological sustainability, due to the impossibility of decoupling environmental impacts and economic growth.
Similarly, Xue (2015) outlines the long-term incompatibility between growth in housing stock and
environmental sustainability.
Other initiatives, such as 'Biophilic cities' 7, capitalize on the innate attraction of the human species
towards nature (Beatley, 2017). The concept of a 'multi-species' right to the city (Shingne, 2020), also responds

3
The Green Infrastructure strategy is a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas designed and
managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services in order to provide environmental, economic and social benefits
(European Commission, 2019).
4
Smart cities have emerged as a strategy to mitigate the problems generated by the urban population growth and the rapid
urbanization. The main new technical, physical and material problems generated by rapidly growing cities are waste
management, scarcity of resources, air pollution, human health concerns, traffic congestion and aging infrastructure
(Chourabi et al., 2012).
5
SDG 11 from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development states: "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable" (United Nations, 2015).
6
In the vision of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, an elusive mention of the protection of wildlife and other
living species is given, as well as the sustainable use of natural resources, yet at the same time assuming economic, social
and technological 'progress' (United Nations, 2015).
7
Biophilic cities refer back to the concept of Biophilia (Wilson, 2016), and are defined as "Cities that are nature-abundant,
that seek to protect and grow nature, and that foster deep connections with the natural world" (Beatley, 2017).

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to a deeper, respectful and non-utilitarian relationship with the natural world. A real "associative interaction"
(Martínez Espinal, 2016) between human settlements and nature can be glimpsed in the concept of 'Ecopolis',
referring to a set of local territorial systems, each with a strong capability for self-sustainability (Downton,
2009). Ostrom's much-debated work on institutions for collective governance and common property signaled
the positive organizational principles held by ancient indigenous communities worldwide (Ostrom, 1990).
In this sense, some authors argue cities cannot become self-sufficient, since they are dependent on
peripheries and broader networks, as well as driving exploitation and exclusion (McKinnon et al., 2017).
However, many local initiatives, developed in response to urgent and common necessities, have arisen. The
Transition Towns movement aims to assist towns and communities envisioning self-reliant futures (Connors &
McDonald, 2011; Dion & Laurent, 2015; Transition Network, 2016); there are movements for degrowth, with
activism aimed at reclaiming urban spaces and growing food locally (Lloveras et al., 2018; Lehtinen, 2018); as
well examples of 'guerrilla gardening' (Berni, 2009; Hardman et al., 2018). These all highlight the necessity of
reclaiming fertile urban soil. The local scale of action is fundamental for nourishing a paradigm shift towards
nature-care. It is also worth mentioning the study by Reese (2016) which showed that the more strongly people
identified with a common human ingroup, the more concerned were they about nature protection, and the less
they believe in the idea that humans have unprecedented power over nature. Yet at the same time, there needs
to be a reconciliation between macro- and micro- levels of reality and the possibility of action (Kipfer, 2009;
Loftus, 2018). In this sense, Beatley (2009, 2017) points out many urban management decisions which have
been carried out by local governments strengthening the Biophilic Cities discourse; while Cohen and Bakker
(2014) recall the importance of the ecological scale, such as bioregions, for decision making. Bringing together
the local and the global, and the more-than-urban and the more-than-human world, is vital (Tzaninis et al.,
2021).

4. Urban ecological variables fostering natural recovery

The set of ecological variables that foster spontaneous plant colonization in the built environment are
collected in Table 1, and they refer to the three studies mentioned in Section 3. The table presents the variables
assessed, their corresponding category (a. environmental conditions; b. physical characteristics; c. vegetation
structure; d. anthropic/Anthropogenic pressure), and the findings of each of the three studies regarding these
variables. Figure 2 presents the assessed variables from Table 1 transposed to four mapping exercises for the
community of Montblanc in Catalunya. Each one of the maps corresponds to each one of the four categories.
The first depicts the environmental variables; map b), physical characteristics; map c) refers to vegetation
structure and d) to human pressure. Figure 2 contributes to the materialization of a real urban degrowth process.
This exercise provides an example of how the assessed variables could be represented geographically for an
urban settlement, in order to bring together the theoretical research outlined above, and the practical
requirements of visioning the re-vegetation of a territorial unit.

The technical terms used

These are several. Ecological variable: this means a factor concerning the interactions between living
beings and their environment, which can influence the dynamic processes in communities of organisms.
Spontaneous plant colonization: refers to the process by which a species spreads to new areas following
the dynamism of the successional process itself. The process of colonization of a previously altered habitat is
called secondary succession (Terradas et al., 1987).
Successional process: The natural dynamic process of transformation of communities of organisms over
time. Some communities are replaced by others which are more stable and efficient in their use of resources.
The general successional process for plant communities is as follows: 1. Increase in total biomass; 2. Increase
in total primary production to maintain the system; 3. In the initial stages, diaspore-producing species
predominate, and in the final stages, few-seed-producing species of zoochory dissemination (dispersed by
animals); 4. Increased complexity and diversity of communities, greater stability of mature communities and
greater ability to respond to external disturbances; 5. In the early stages of secondary succession, the

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composition of the communities exists within very wide limits, but moving to more and more defined and
concrete final stages (Terradas et al., 1987).
Biotic and abiotic factors: Biotic factors are those referring to any activity of a living organism which
has an effect on the ecosystem, such as competition and facilitation interactions between species. Abiotic factors
are the non-living parts of an ecosystem which have an effect on the environment, such as temperature, sunlight,
water, wind, atmospheric conditions and soil.
Weathering processes: The physical process which changes solid rocks into sediments. Once these
sediments are separated from the rocks, erosion is the process that moves the sediments away from their original
position, by means of the four forces of erosion: water, wind, glaciers, and gravity (Dastrup, 2020).

Variable type Variable Description

a. Precipitation High levels of precipitation favor plant growth. The number of plants decreases in environments in which
environmental there is little precipitation and relative humidity is low all year round. Rain washes nitrates over the stone
conditions (coming from the bird excrement), which enriches the substrates and favors lichen colonization. Micro-
sites at ground level favor rainwater accumulation, which together with natural substrate collection,
favors plant growth (1). Direct exposure to rain favors the following plant functions: installation,
germination, hydration, reproduction (2). Rain favors the deposition of air borne particles (3).

Relative High levels of relative humidity favor plant growth (1). Also provides moisture, which stimulates the
humidity growth of microorganisms (3).

Temperature In the study by Manso et al., Ghent (with lower average temperatures than Barcelona or Montseny),
showed a higher amount of microorganisms on specimens. This fact may be due to its higher relative
humidity and the even rainfall distribution throughout the year. Also another influencing factor to these
results is time. All specimens were exposed for only one year in all locations. This short period allows
higher biological growth in a location with oceanic conditions, while Mediterranean vegetation grows
more slowly (3). Therefore, this variable is really related to water availability, but no conclusions can be
drawn regarding the studies analyzed.

Solar Sunshine is one of the abiotic factors which affect firstly built surfaces, by initiating the weathering
exposure process of the substrate for the later biological growth (1).

Wind Wind is also one of the abiotic factors which affect built surfaces, initiating weathering process of the
exposure substrate for later biological growth. Wind works as a dispersal agent which allows some seeds to reach
cracks or small cavities in the building material. Disperses lichens' reproductive structures in the
atmosphere (1). Exposure to prevailing winds brings humidity and precipitation (2). Contributes to the
spread of fungi. Light wind favors the deposition of air borne particles. Influences the maintenance of
the organisms on built surfaces, although it could provoke the detachment of the most superficial
organisms on vertical orientations (3). Wind exposure is related to other factors like temperature and
humidity and hence together with high temperatures or low levels of humidity, it can be a limiting factor
for biological growth, since it increases evapotranspiration. Also, wind speed is a factor which can
biological growth negatively or positively.

Other forms Lichens may grow along paths of water run-off. Retained water in pores or cavities favors lichen growth,
of water hosts mosses and higher plants (1).
exposure

b. physical Material pH The pH of the substrate influences the first selection of lichen flora: neutral and alkaline favors
characteristics calcicolous species; and acid favors silicic species (1). Substrate pH affects the following vegetal
functions: installation, protection, hydration (2). High pH values (>12) are related to low bio receptivity;
middle pH values (9-10) are suitable for biological colonization; low pH values (5-7) are suitable for
fungal colonization. The presence of bacteria in the environment may cause a local drop in pH (3).

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Variable type Variable Description

Material Porous stone retains water and hosts mosses and higher order plants. Favors lichen growth. Stone
porosity surfaces which have become porous, after their transformation by air substances and bacteria, facilitate
lichen growth (1). Porosity of materials favors the following plant functions: installation, protection,
hydration. It favors spontaneous plant colonization (2).

Presence of As well as pores and cavities, fissures and cracks favor the retention of water, the shelter of seeds, and
joints and therefore lichen and plant growth (1). Fissures and joints constitute favorable situations for the
fissures in spontaneous plant colonization. The presence of joints and fissures favors the following plant functions:
materials installation, protection, hydration (2).

Material Together with the chemical composition, texture of material determines the resistance of a building to
texture atmospheric agents and colonization by forms of life (1). Rough textures favor the following plant
functions: installation, hydration (2).

Material type Porous materials or those with cracks, like travertine and red bricks, provide good microsites (1).
(besides Material's type can favor or deter the following plant functions: installation, protection, hydration. Petro-
material physicochemical characteristics of the material influence the establishment of living forms. For example,
porosity, gritstone, old coatings and mortar surfaces may allow rare species to grow on flat surfaces, due to the
material pH high porosity (2). Ordinary cement is not feasible for the rapid development of a biological patina (due
and texture) to high alkalinity) and low porosity. Despite this, its reaction with the atmospheric CO2 causes a pH drop
which is suitable for biological growth (due to the carbonation process) (3).

Number of The alternation of different construction materials allows multiplication of the possible settling points
visible for vegetation within a building, regardless of the type of materials. The presence of materials with
materials different physical characteristics as well as the consequent presence of joints between such materials
imply favorable conditions for biological growth (2).

Access to The more access to substrate in the building micro-sites, the better conditions for plant growth (1). Good
topsoil access and volume to topsoil favors the following plant functions: installation, protection, hydration,
reproduction (2).

Antiquity of Favors biological growth, when other factors as the material type and other environmental and physical
construction variables are also supportive. For example, certain Roman marbles are still in perfect condition, and only
biological growth can be found where restoration has been performed with the use of modern materials
(1). Antiquity of construction favors the following plant functions: installation, protection, hydration (2).

Orientation Orientation to the sun affects the following plant functions: installation, protection, respiration,
hydration, photosynthesis (2). Horizontal surfaces offer better conditions for plant growth (more water
and substrate); they offer more chance for seeds landing; a good perch for birds that excrete seeds; a
good site for ant nests where seeds are stored. Horizontal surfaces in buildings host the greatest number
of plants (1). Horizontal dihedrals favor plant growth due to protection and the greater deposition of
organic matter. Horizontal surfaces favor the following vegetal functions: installation, photosynthesis
(2). They offer a better deposition of bacteria, spores, and organic matter, as well as a greater exposure
to climate conditions (rain, wind, sun) (3).
Vertical orientations offer more limited conditions for biological growth than horizontal (1), hosting a
lower presence of microorganisms (3).
Moisture conditions due to condensation on the north sides favor lichen growth (1) North orientations
favor more suitable conditions for biological growth (3).

c. vegetation Proximity to a Favors plant colonization and the arrival of seeds from elsewhere. The proximity to a biodiversity reserve
structure biodiversity favors the following plant functions: installation, reproduction (2).
reserve

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Variable type Variable Description

Presence of Frugivorous birds, bats or mammals that eat fruit, as well as humans, pollinator insects, and ants can
biological favor the dispersal of seeds/propagules and act as dispersal agents (1). These agents affect the following
dispersal vegetal functions: installation, protection, reproduction (2). Human activity strongly influences species
agents dispersal.

d. anthropic Air pollution High pollution concentrations, particularly SO2, impede lichen growth (1). Atmospheric pollution may
pressure not favor the following plant functions: installation, protection, respiration, hydration, photosynthesis,
reproduction, and may favor respiration and hydration (2). Air pollutants such as fertilizers and
atmospheric dust, favor nutrient enrichment and the formation of substrates. SO2 forms sulphuric acid
due to the oxidation process. Also, dry deposition of NOx contributes to such process, favoring substrate
formation for bacterial colonization. CO2 contributes to the drop of pH in cementitious materials (the
carbonation process that is of particular concern for ocean pH), which may be related to high bio-
receptivity. Large amounts of pollutants favor bacterial presence (3).

Trampling Trampling may not favor the following plant functions: installation, protection, respiration, hydration,
photosynthesis, reproduction, and may favor installation and reproduction, through the release of seeds
or displacement (2).

Vehicle Infrastructure like roads are a barrier for the dispersal of species. At the same time movement of
circulation mechanized vehicles can contribute to seed dispersal. Vehicle circulation may upset the following plant
functions: installation, protection, reproduction (2).

State of the The maintenance and use of a building determines its speed of deterioration, together with the other
building influencing factors mentioned, like wind and rainfall (1). States of abandonment favor biological growth.
Maintenance works may affect the following plant functions: installation, protection, hydration, and
reproduction (2).

Table 1: Variables influencing spontaneous plant colonization in urban environments. From

studies by Lisci et al. 2003; Lagurgue et al. 2019 and Manso et al. 2015.

5. Discussion

Urban degrowth and spontaneous re-naturalization

Considering human activity to be the main target of justice-related mitigation and adaptation responses
(Reese, 2016), the urban degrowth stance endorsed above is vital in the urban field, with all its complexities.
Research in ecology and the natural sciences, as well as degrowth approaches from different disciplines are
needed (Haase, 2008; Varvarousis & Koutrolikou, 2018). A necessary reversal of priorities entails urban
reasoning and action, including consideration of ecological variables and the dynamics of other living beings.
The more we learn about the ecological dynamics of cities, the more we can influence development patterns
and grassroots processes and initiatives. The 'urban degrowth agenda' is rooted in alternative thinking about the
fate of our economies and cities, but that is no reason that it should not also be informed by efforts to regreen
and vegetate urban space (Lehtinen, 2018; Xue, 2021).
Political change can be articulated through ecological discourse (Cohen & Bakker, 2014). Knowing more
about key ecological variables, and supplying this information to urban planners and other stakeholders, makes
sense on a number of levels. The ecological layers of the city can be used as a tool to overlap with the existing
urban plan to influence its gradual change over time, deducing future potential gaps in the de-occupation of
anthropogenic activity, and contributing therefore to the settling of a network of "autonomous natural" spaces
in the built environment, as well as to the connection of biodiversity reservoirs on a larger scale. The multi-
species right to the city (Shingne, 2020) can be shaped through urban degrowth processes and the consequent
liberation of fertile land for growing food and other purposes, which at the same time contributes to global
environmental justice by fostering more local access to natural resources.

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Ecological variables of the urban context fostering natural recovery

The natural successional processes that characterize every ecosystem, are also present in the urban
context. Rapoport (1993) made useful studies of plant colonization in small settlements and large cities. In their
study of spontaneous plant colonization on roofs, Deng and Jim (2017) confirmed the potential for more
biodiversity enhancement and conservation in densely developed urban areas. I take the three studies as a lens
through which to understand the intrinsic potential of spontaneous plant colonization in cities. These differ in
terms of their locations and biota, as well as the goals of each study, meaning that no final conclusions can be
drawn. However, the four assessed ecological categories, influencing the pace and direction of the plant
colonization process, are described in Table 1. Of course, high levels of precipitation and relative humidity may
favor vegetation colonization. Also, the incidence of the abiotic agents which contribute to the weathering
process of the substrate, such as solar radiation, wind and other forms of water exposure, may accelerate
biological growth. The type of material influences a greater pace of plant colonization in buildings, particularly,
low pH substrates with high levels of porosity, rough textures, joints and fissures. The antiquity of a building
favors plant growth, but its pace will be determined by other influencing variables. Horizontal flat surfaces with
northern orientations (in the northern hemisphere) are more suitable for spontaneous plant growth.
As for vegetation structure, the proximity to a biodiversity reserve favors colonization by plants, since
it is usually a main source for the arrival of external seeds. Bochet et al. (2007) found neighboring vegetation
acts as a seed reservoir for spontaneous colonization of adjacent road corridors. Moreover, the presence of
dispersal agents, even human, favors seeds dispersal. Also, Deng and Jim's study of green roof designs (2017),
showed that the propagules of the established plants were brought primarily by birds and wind, and secondarily
inherited from the soil seed bank. In a study by Bochet et al. (2007), wind-dispersed plants were over-
represented in the process of spontaneous plant colonization along roads. Regarding anthropic pressure, high
levels of atmospheric pollution do not favor biological growth, although some pollutants may contribute to the
formation of substrate for bacterial colonization. Human management of weedy and other species obviously
reduces spontaneous plant colonization.
A description of each of the four diagrams in Figure 2 requires clarification of the different ecological
categories, as given in Table 1 (a. environmental conditions, b. physical characteristics, c. vegetation structure
and d. anthropic pressure). Note that these descriptions correspond to the specific case of the particular urban
settlement studied in each research project.
a. Environmental conditions: The topographic level +400m is represented, as it can operate as a barrier
for the prevailing westerly winds. Watercourses, also shown, are humid veins which can favor the process of
spontaneous re-naturalization. The other environmental factors in Table 1 are key factors that shape areas with
a greater potential for plant colonization within the city.
b. Physical characteristics: Topography directs the path of watercourses. Natural watercourses can
become future green corridors (Downton, 2009), and the orientation of steep slopes directly influences plant
colonization. The geology of urban areas defines the characteristics of the substrate. The map illustrates the
different buildings of the old town and to the Roman times; ceramic constructions, corresponding to urban
expansions mostly from 18th to 20th centuries, and the arrival of concrete from the end of the 20th century. The
use of metals for construction are also recent arrivals.
c. Vegetation structure: What Linglart et al. (2016) call Spaces of Natural Character are biodiversity
reserves, creating opportunities for plant colonization. These can be classified as primary and secondary
biodiversity cores and corridors, according to their size, shape and vegetation density. Abandoned agricultural
plots are included in the second category.
d. Anthropic/Anthropogenic pressure: These are several, as described in Table 1, but the map focuses on
corridors. Road infrastructure is the main creator of atmospheric and noise pollution. They are also a barrier for

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plant colonization. The map shows highways, railways, regional roads, smaller roads and paths. It also shows
the extent of the built environment, as well as active agricultural holdings.

Figure 2: Mapping of the ecological variables that influence spontaneous plant colonization in
an urban settlement, Montblanc in Catalunya.

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6. Conclusion
Ecological variables and other living beings have been ignored in the intrinsic valuation approach
prevalent in architecture and urbanism in previous decades. To support the non-human world, urban de-
occupation and spontaneous re-naturalization are required, as well as the re-localization of food and agriculture
in cities referred to above (Trainer 2019; Krähmer, 2022). This article has elaborated an initial descriptive
approach that supports an ecological position that is an alternative one; that as part of urban degrowth, a process
of urban de-occupation and spontaneous re-naturalization should occur. I presented a theoretical framework
from political ecology, urban planning, deep ecology and degrowth thinking, before proposing a preliminary
investigation into the spatial materialization of spontaneous re-naturalization. The main ecological variables
that influence spontaneous plant colonization in the urban environment were identified, and then mapped for
one urban settlement. This is a fundamental step, because it links theory to the practical question of spontaneous
re-naturalization and its policy implications.
A new economic, social and nature-relational paradigm takes elements of urban degrowth, and appeals
to some of the core tenets of political ecology, pushing practitioners to include ecological variables in
envisioning and constructing a better future. Political change can be articulated through ecological discourse,
and hence the knowledge of ecological dynamics and of other living beings in cities could be applied to
territorial management in order to foster a real urban degrowth process at different scales. The article recognized
urban degrowth as an essential goal, in the context of caring for nature. New global and local conservation
policies could involve practical collective actions and initiatives that promote it. This goal can only be reached
from a conception which assumes us, human beings, as one thread more in the complex whole life system of
this planet.

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