Prevention of Eating Disorders in Argentine Adolescents
Prevention of Eating Disorders in Argentine Adolescents
Prevention of Eating Disorders in Argentine Adolescents
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
In the last few decades much effort has been devoted to devel- Eating Disorders; Prevention;
oping prevention programs for eating disorders, as most indivi- Cognitive Dissonance; Media
duals with these pathologies do not receive treatment and tend literacy; Adolescents; Latin
American
to become chronic. The purpose of this study was to evaluate
a cognitive dissonance and media literacy intervention aimed at
preventing eating disorders in female adolescents. Eighty-eight PALABRAS CLAVE
female students (aged 12–17) from Argentina, participated in Trastornos de la Conducta
a 3-session program. Adolescents completed a baseline, post- Alimentaria; Prevención -
intervention and a 6-month follow-up survey. A significant Disonancia Cognitiva;
decrease in thin-ideal internalization, body image concerns, influ- Alfabetización de Medios;
ence of advertising, drive for thinness and bulimic attitudes was Adolescentes; Latino
found at post-intervention. In addition, the number of partici- Americano
pants with disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors decreased
at post-intervention. Results for body image concerns and drive
for thinness were maintained at follow-up.
SPANISH ABSTRACT
En las últimas décadas se ha dedicado mucho esfuerzo para
desarrollar programas de prevención de trastornos alimentar-
ios, ya que la mayoría de los individuos con estas patologías no
reciben tratamiento y estos trastornos tienden a volverse
crónicos. El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar una
intervención basada en el enfoque de la alfabetización en
medios y los principios de disonancia cognitiva para prevenir
los trastornos de la conducta alimentaria en adolescentes
femeninas. Ochenta y ocho estudiantes mujeres entre 12 y 17
años de Argentina participaron en un programa de 3 sesiones.
Las adolescentes completaron una encuesta pre-intervención,
post-intervención y un seguimiento a los 6 meses. En la post-
intervención se encontró una disminución significativa de la
internalización del ideal de delgadez, la preocupación por la
imagen corporal, la influencia de los medios, la búsqueda de
delgadez y actitudes bulímicas. Además, el número de partici-
pantes con actitudes y conductas alimentarias disfuncionales
también disminuyó postintervención. Los resultados en la
preocupación por la imagen corporal y la búsqueda de delga-
dez se mantuvieron en el seguimiento.
Clinical Implications
● Perspectiva de las Participantes con respecto al Programa (PIA)
Program, which combines media literacy with cognitive dissonance
and interactive psychoeducation about nutrition, is feasible, leads to
promising post intervention results and show a high level of acceptance.
● Perspectiva de las Participantes con respecto al Programa (PIA)
Program is a brief intervention that could be disseminated and offered
to other Latin American female adolescents.
● In order to improve long term results, booster sessions and or adding
interventions targeting parents, teachers and male peers are suggested.
Introduction
Eating disorders (ED) can carry serious consequences for both physical
health and psychological wellbeing (Klump, Bulik, Kaye, Treasure, &
Tyson, 2009; Swanson, Crow, Le Grange, Swendsen, & Merikangas, 2011).
However, individuals with eating disorders often take years to seek for
professional help, and only a few access specialized treatments (Hudson,
Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007; Swanson et al., 2011). In addition, whilst
receiving treatment, many patients fail to achieve complete remission, and
can relapse. This is most pronounced in serious and chronic cases (Keel &
Brown, 2010; Swanson et al., 2011). Therefore, prevention is the most
effective response to the growing concern and demand in relation to these
issues (Ciao, Loth, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2014; Levine, Mc Vey, Piran, &
Ferguson, 2012; Levine & Smolak, 2006).
Several prevention programs, with different contents and formats, have
been developed and evaluated. According to different meta-analysis and
review studies, the most effective interventions are directed to the reduction
of risk factors such as socio-cultural pressure toward thinness, thin-ideal
internalization, weight concerns and body dissatisfaction (Ciao et al., 2014;
Cororve-Fingeret, Warren, Cepeda-Benito, & Gleaves, 2006; Stice, Rohde, &
Shaw, 2013; Yager & O’Dea, 2008). Moreover, programs that presented
greater empirical support are those that adopt an approach based on both
media literacy and cognitive dissonance (Watson et al., 2016).
Most studies evaluating prevention programs have included mostly
Caucasian samples. Latinos or Hispanics are one of the ethnic groups which
calls the attention of researchers in the United States, as it represents 17.6% of
the total population (more than 56 million people), according to the Census of
2015 (American Fact Finder, 2015). Published studies in that country indicate
that the efficacy of preventive programs based on cognitive dissonance is
similar across different ethnic groups (Rodríguez, Marchand, Ng, & Stice,
2008; Stice, Marti, & Cheng, 2014). However, studies aimed at comparing risk
EATING DISORDERS 185
Method
Participants
The current is a pre-experimental study that compared risk factors for eating
disorders at three different time points: baseline, post-intervention and
a 6-month follow-up. A sample of 115 participants was recruited from two
high schools in Buenos Aires (one public and one private). Only students
with complete data for the three assessment time points were included in
the analyses (76.5% of the original sample) (see Figure 1). The final sample
included 88 girls between 12 and 17 years of age at baseline (M = 14.49 years,
SD = 1.25). Adolescents and parents provided written assent and consent,
186 G. RUTSZTEIN ET AL.
Assigned to groups
108 (93.9% of the original sample)
9 Dropouts
(Did not finish the program nor at-
tend post-intervention assessment)
Completed post-intervention assess-
ment
99 (86.1% of the original sample)
11 Excluded
(Did not attend follow-up assess-
ment)
Completed follow-up assessment
88 (76.5% of the original sample)
respectively. Participants’ mean body mass index (BMI) was 21.76 kg/m2
(SD = 3.82). In the distribution of age-adjusted BMI function (World Health
Organization, 2007), 6.8% of our sample presented as risk of low weight,
71.6% normal weight, 13.6% overweight and 8% obesity.
Materials
Participants completed the following self-administered instruments:
Socio demographic questionnaire. This was designed with the purpose of
gathering information on age, education level and composition of the family.
Cuestionario de Influencia del Modelo Estético Corporal (CIMEC-26)
(Questionnaire of Sociocultural Influences on the Aesthetic Body Shape Model)
(Toro, Salamero, & Martínez, 1995). This self-administered scale (developed in
Spanish), is composed of 26 items, 3-point Likert scale. The scale evaluates
socio-cultural influences using five subscales (Body Image Concerns, Influence
of Advertising, Influence of Verbal Messages, Influence of Social Models and
Influence of Social Situations). In the present study, Total Score was used as
EATING DISORDERS 187
Procedure
The objective of the study was disclosed to the educational institutions and the
authorities agreed to carry out the project at these schools. In accordance with
existing ethical principles, participants were informed about confidentiality of
provided data and about the voluntary character of their participation.
Participants were assigned to nine groups and each one was coordinated by
two clinical psychologists from the research team. Three 60-minute sessions
were delivered at 1-week intervals on school premises. Recommendations of
meta-analysis and systematic reviews mentioned above (see Introduction) were
188 G. RUTSZTEIN ET AL.
considered when the PIA program was designed. Presentations, videos and
pictures from magazines are used as triggers of debates about how the ideals of
beauty have changed according to the culture, or the background. There is also
a discussion on the way in which media and advertising relate thinness to
success and happiness, and the utilization of technology to show “perfect” and
unrealistic bodies. Participants are encouraged to share their experiences and
their opinions. Other activities consist of role-plays in which participants have
to oppose the thin-ideal, arguing ways in which it can be detrimental to health.
Role-plays are also focused on helping adolescent girls to build assertive
responses for social pressures.
The assessment was conducted in three times. At baseline, students com-
pleted the Socio-Demographic Questionnaire, the CIMEC-26 and the EDI-3.
In addition, they were weighed and measured by a nutritionist and BMI was
calculated. At post-intervention, students completed the CIMEC-26 and the
EDI-3, and they were asked their opinion about the PIA program. Finally,
participants completed a 6-month follow-up evaluation (CIMEC-26 and
EDI-3).
Although it was not the focus of this study, participants were interviewed
face-to-face and those who screened positive for DSM-5 full-threshold AN,
BN, or BED were offered a referral. 10.8% of the participants who completed
baseline assessment were referred to public hospitals in order to receive
specialized treatment.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using the statistical package R (version
3.1.1). In order to evaluate if there were significant differences between the
three times of assessment, in quantitative variables the analysis of repeated
measures was used. Since the variables did not show a normal distribution
Friedman non-parametric test and Nemenyi post-hoc test were used. For
dysfunctional eating attitudes Chi-Square test was used (using Monte Carlo`s
significance). Also, effect sizes were calculated.
Results
Thin-ideal internalization
Significant differences between the times of assessment were observed for the
Total Score of the CIMEC-26 and in two of the five subscales (Body Image
Concerns and Influence of Advertising) (Table 1). Effect sizes ranged from small
to medium. Thin-Ideal Internalization (total score), Influence of Advertising and
Body Image Concerns decreased significantly at post-intervention. Reductions
on Body Image Concerns remained at the follow-up assessment.
Table 1. Means of the CIMEC-26 and the EDI-3.
Baseline Post-intervention Follow-up Friedman test Effect sizes
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Statistic d.f. p Nemenyi post-hoc test η2p
CIMEC-26
Thin-ideal internalization (total score) 17.12 (11.27) 14.87 (10.64) 14.62 (10.37) 11.25 2 .004 Baseline > Post .06
Body image concerns 7.45 (4.77) 6.24 (4.61) 6.31 (4.63) 13.07 2 .001 Baseline > Post, Follow-up .09
Influence of advertising 2.75 (2.97) 1.94 (2.58) 1.96 (3.02) 9.36 2 .009 Baseline > Post .04
Influence of verbal messages 1.84 (1.77) 1.69 (1.87) 1.56 (1.80) 1.12 2 .571 NS –
Influence of social models 2.95 (1.94) 3.00 (1.96) 2.93 (1.93) 0.32 2 .853 NS –
Influence of social contexts 2.18 (1.79) 2.05 (1.69) 2.22 (1.54) 3.04 2 .218 NS –
EDI-3
Drive for thinness 10.68 (7.85) 8.07 (7.58) 8.56 (8.00) 20.86 2 < .001 Baseline > Post, Follow-up .14
Bulimic attitudes 3.81 (4.14) 2.45 (2.94) 3.20 (4.54) 7.36 2 .025 Baseline > Post .06
Body dissatisfaction 16.11 (9.38) 14.38 (8.31) 15.59 (9.60) 5.03 2 .081 NS –
Note. NS = Not Significant.
EATING DISORDERS
189
190 G. RUTSZTEIN ET AL.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of an ED prevention
program (PIA Program) in adolescent women from Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The results indicated a decrease in the percentage of adolescents with dys-
functional eating attitudes as well as a decrease in variables associated with
eating disorders at post intervention, such as thin-ideal internalization, drive
for thinness and bulimic attitudes. These results are in line with outcomes of
other preventive programs based on cognitive dissonance and media literacy
(González, Penelo, Gutiérrez, & Raich, 2011; Stice, Marti, Spoor, Presnell, &
Shaw, 2008; Stice, Rohde, Gau, & Shaw, 2009; Stice, Shaw, Burton, & Wade,
2006). For example, after implementing a program based on these principles,
Stice et al. (2008), obtained a reduction of the symptomatology of ED and
a decrease in the risk of developing ED. Relatedly, in a sample of Spanish
EATING DISORDERS 191
One of the limitations of the current study is the lack of a control group
therefore, it is not possible to ensure that the results are due to the interven-
tion and not to other factors. A second limitation is the small sample size,
that could have limited the power of the statistical analysis carried out.
However, it is important to emphasize that such designs are often indispen-
sable in the early phases of treatment development, as they allow researchers
to collect preliminary data that can shape the development of novel inter-
ventions (Lilienfeld, Ritschel, Lynn, Cautin, & Latzman, 2014). Despite lim-
itations, this study shows promising post-intervention results and a high level
of acceptance. This program is being currently evaluated in more rigorously
controlled trials.
The PIA program is a brief intervention that could be disseminated and
offered to other Latin American female adolescents. However, as it was
stressed in the introduction, it should be noted that Latin population com-
prises various countries and regions of origin, which may have differences in
several aspects of their socio-cultural background. Therefore, specific cultural
features should be identified and the possibility to implement this interven-
tion in different Latin American countries and also in countries where Latin
population is currently an ethnic minority, requires further research.
EATING DISORDERS 193
Introducción
Los trastornos alimentarios (TA) acarrean graves consecuencias tanto para la
salud física como psicológica (Klump, Bulik, Kaye, Treasure, & Tyson, 2009;
Swanson, Crow, Le Grange, Swendsen, & Merikangas, 2011). Sin embargo,
quienes presentan dichos trastornos suelen demorar años en consultar, y sólo
una minoría accede a tratamientos especializados (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, &
Kessler, 2007; Swanson et al., 2011). Además, muchos pacientes que reciben
tratamiento no logran una remisión completa y pueden recaer, especialmente
cuando se trata de casos graves y crónicos (Keel & Brown, 2010; Swanson
et al., 2011). Por ello, la prevención constituye la respuesta más efectiva a la
creciente preocupación y demanda en relación con estas problemáticas (Ciao,
Loth, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2014; Levine, Mc Vey, Piran, & Ferguson, 2012;
Levine & Smolak, 2006).
Se han desarrollado y evaluado numerosos programas de prevención con
contenido y formato diversos. Diferentes metaanálisis y estudios de revisión
coinciden en señalar que las intervenciones más eficaces se enfocan en la
reducción de factores de riesgo tales como la presión sociocultural hacia la
delgadez, la internalización del ideal de delgadez, las preocupaciones por el
peso y la insatisfacción corporal, entre otros (Ciao et al., 2014; Cororve-
Fingeret, Warren, Cepeda-Benito, & Gleaves, 2006; Stice, Rohde, & Shaw,
2013; Yager & O’Dea, 2008). Por otra parte, se identificó que los programas
con mayor apoyo empírico son aquellos que adoptan un enfoque basado
tanto en la alfabetización en medios como en la disonancia cognitiva
(Watson et al., 2016).
La mayoría de los estudios que evaluaron los programas de prevención
incluyeron principalmente muestras caucásicas. Los latinos o hispanos constitu-
yen uno de los grupos étnicos que llama la atención de los investigadores en
Estados Unidos, dado que representan el 17.6% de la población total (más de 56
millones de personas), según el Censo de 2015 (American Fact Finder, 2015).
Estudios publicados en ese país indican que la eficacia de los programas de
prevención basados en la disonancia cognitiva es similar en los diferentes grupos
étnicos (Rodríguez, Marchand, Ng, & Stice, 2008; Stice, Marti, & Cheng, 2014).
Sin embargo, los estudios que comparan factores de riesgo en diferentes grupos
étnicos muestran cierta especificidad relacionada con la cultura, como un menor
nivel de insatisfacción corporal e internalización del ideal de delgadez en las
mujeres latinas, en comparación con las mujeres caucásicas (Warren, Gleaves,
Cepeda-Benito, Fernandez, & Rodriguez-Ruiz, 2005; White & Grilo, 2005). Es
preciso destacar que la influencia cultural es un factor multidimensional
y complejo. Tal como lo señalan Warren et al. (2005), dentro de la categoría
étnica latina o hispana coexisten culturas diversas que podrían presentar difer-
encias con respecto a las conductas y actitudes vinculadas con la alimentación
y la imagen corporal. Por lo tanto, es necesario profundizar el conocimiento
acerca de los componentes de los programas de prevención que resultan eficaces
en distintas culturas, con el fin de diseminar los esfuerzos en prevención (Becker
et al., 2016). Así, los estudios deberían incluir no sólo a las minorías étnicas sino
también a los diferentes subgrupos que conforman la población hispana o latina.
En Latinoamérica los desarrollos en prevención de TA se encuentran aún
en sus inicios. No obstante, en las últimas dos décadas se han desarrollado
algunos programas en países como Argentina, Brasil, Colombia, México
y Venezuela (Anuel, Bracho, Brito, Rondón & Sulbaran, 2012; Dunker,
Philippi, & Ikeda, 2010; Escoto Ponce de León, Camacho Ruiz, Rodríguez
Hernández, & Mejía-Castrejón, 2010; Moreno Ospina, Niño Niño, Sabogal
Salazar, & Salazar Restrepo, 2003; Rutsztein, 2016). Aunque se trata de
programas con resultados promisorios, la mayoría se encuentra en una
etapa inicial. Resulta necesario incrementar el estudio acerca de su eficacia,
mediante la realización de evaluaciones más rigurosas que incluyan
muestras más numerosas y seguimientos más prolongados.
En Argentina, en el año 2008 se promulgó una ley que declara la
prevención de los TA como tema de interés nacional (Congreso de la
Nación, 2008). Sin embargo, hasta la fecha no se han publicado estudios de
eficacia de programas de prevención en el ámbito local. El presente estudio
tiene como objetivo evaluar el impacto del Programa de Prevención en
Imagen corporal y Alimentación (PIA, Rutsztein et al., 2016), basado en la
alfabetización en medios y la disonancia cognitiva. Se propone como
hipótesis que los factores de riesgo disminuyen luego de la intervención,
manteniéndose en el seguimiento a los seis meses.
Método
Participantes
Se trata de un estudio pre-experimental que comparó factores de riesgo de
trastorno alimentario en tres tiempos: inicial, post-intervención y seguimiento
a los seis meses. La muestra estuvo conformada por 115 participantes pertene-
cientes a dos escuelas medias de Buenos Aires (una pública y una privada). Sólo
EATING DISORDERS 195
Materiales
Las participantes completaron los siguientes instrumentos autoadministrados:
Cuestionario socio-demográfico: Este instrumento fue diseñado con el
propósito de recabar información sobre la edad, el nivel de escolaridad y la
composición del núcleo familiar.
Cuestionario de Influencia del Modelo Estético Corporal-26 (CIMEC-26)
(Toro, Salamero, & Martínez, 1995). Se trata de un cuestionario autoadmi-
nistrado (desarrollado en español) compuesto por 26 ítems, con tres opciones
3 excluidas
(no iniciaron Programa PIA)
9 excluidas
(no finalizaron Programa PIA ni completaron la
evaluación post-intervención )
Completaron evaluación post-inter-
vención
99 (86.1% de la muestra inicial)
11 Excluidas
(no completaron evaluación de seguimiento)
Completaron evaluación de segui-
miento
88 (76.5% de la muestra inicial)
Procedimiento
Se informó el objetivo del estudio a las autoridades de las instituciones
educativas quienes autorizaron realizar el estudio en las escuelas. Tal como
EATING DISORDERS 197
Análisis estadístico
Los análisis se realizaron con el paquete estadístico R versión 3.3.1. Se utilizó
el análisis de medidas repetidas con el fin de evaluar si existían diferencias
estadísticamente significativas entre los tres momentos de medición en las
variables cuantitativas. Dado que las variables no presentaron una
distribución normal se utilizó el test no paramétrico de Friedman y el test
post hoc de Nemenyi. Se utilizó el estadístico Chi-cuadrado (considerando la
198 G. RUTSZTEIN ET AL.
Resultados
Internalización del ideal de delgadez
Se observaron diferencias significativas entre los momentos de evaluación en
el Puntaje Total del CIMEC-26 y en dos de las cinco subescalas
(Preocupación por la Imagen Corporal e Influencia de la Publicidad) (ver
Tabla 1). Se observaron indicadores de tamaño del efecto que oscilan entre
bajo y moderado. Internalización del Ideal de Delgadez (Puntaje Total),
Influencia de la Publicidad y Preocupación por la Imagen Corporal descen-
dieron de manera significativa en post-intervención. Dicho descenso se
mantuvo en el seguimiento en Preocupación por la Imagen Corporal.
Discusión
El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el impacto de un programa de
prevención de TA (Programa PIA) en mujeres adolescentes de Buenos
Aires, Argentina.
Los resultados muestran una reducción del porcentaje de adolescentes con
actitudes alimentarias disfuncionales y una reducción de variables asociadas
a trastornos alimentarios en la evaluación post-intervención, tales como
internalización del ideal de delgadez, búsqueda de delgadez y actitudes
bulímicas. Estos resultados están en línea con los resultados de otros programas
preventivos basados en la disonancia cognitiva y la alfabetización en
medios (González, Penelo, Gutiérrez, & Raich, 2011; Stice, Marti, Spoor,
Presnell, & Shaw, 2008; Stice, Rohde, Gau, & Shaw, 2009; Stice, Shaw, Burton, &
Wade, 2006). Por ejemplo, Stice et al. (2008) al implementar un programa basado
en estos principios, obtuvieron una reducción de la sintomatología de TA, así
como del riesgo de desarrollar un TA. De modo similar, en una muestra de
adolescentes españolas se observó una reducción de actitudes alimentarias dis-
funcionales en la evaluación post – intervención (González et al., 2011).
Según el modelo etiológico de la doble vía (Stice, 2002), uno de los factores
que influyen en la disminución de las actitudes alimentarias disfuncionales
estaría asociado con la reducción de la internalización del ideal de delgadez.
En este estudio, dicha variable que ha sido reconocida como uno de los
factores de riesgo más importante (Keel & Forney, 2013), mostró una
marcada disminución después de la intervención. Este hallazgo está en
línea con los resultados obtenidos en programas similares implementados
en escuelas medias (González et al., 2011; Mora et al., 2015; Sharpe, Schober,
Treasure, & Schmidt, 2013). Además, se observó una disminución significa-
tiva en dos dimensiones mayormente abordadas en las actividades del pro-
grama: preocupación por la imagen corporal e influencia de la publicidad.
El modelo de etiológico de la doble vía (Stice, 2002) postula que la
internalización del ideal de delgadez conduce a la insatisfacción corporal
y al desarrollo de conductas disfuncionales para perder peso. Sin embargo,
en este estudio si bien la reducción de la internalización del ideal de delgadez
se acompañó de una reducción de conductas alimentarias disfuncionales, no
se observó una disminución de la insatisfacción corporal. En España, Mora
et al. (2015) hallaron resultados similares tras implementar una intervención
basada en alfabetización en medios. Según explican los autores, este resultado
podría estar relacionado con la población a la que se dirigió la intervención.
Es probable que los programas dirigidos a población general obtengan
mejores resultados en los factores de riesgo que aparecen más
EATING DISORDERS 201
Funding
Supported by grants from the Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBACyT20020120100036BA)
Financiado con subsidio de la Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBACyT20020120100036BA)
ORCID
Guillermina Rutsztein http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2237-4738
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