Rev. FCA UNCUYO.

Monitoring 2020. 52(1):

vegetation using175-189. ISSN (en time
remote sensing línea)series
1853-8665.
data

Monitoring vegetation using remote sensing time series

data: a review of the period 1996-2017
Monitoreo de vegetación utilizando datos de series de tiempo de
teledetección: una revisión de 1996-2017

José Manuel Zúñiga-Vásquez 1, Carlos Arturo Aguirre-Salado 2, Marín Pompa-García 1*

Originales: Recepción: 17/05/2018 - Aceptación: 04/07/2019

Abstract

Analyzing time series data with remote sensing provides a better understanding of
vegetation dynamics, since previous conditions and changes that have occurred over a
given period are known. The objective of this paper was to analyze the current status
and recent advances in the use of time series data obtained from remote sensors for
vegetation monitoring. A systematic search of scientific papers was performed and
167 papers were found, published during the period 1996 to 2017. No significant
difference in the amount of years analyzed was found between time series analyzed with
a single sensor and those analyzed with a combination of several sensors (i.e. Landsat
and SPOT, Landsat and Sentinel, among others). However, the combination of data
from different sensors (fusion of images) can improve the quality of the results. Special
attention must also be given to the fusion of optical and radar data, since this offers more
unique spectral and structural information for land cover and land use assessments.

Keywords
phenology • land cover • analysis of multi-temporal remote sensing • spatio-temporal
analysis • image fusion

1 Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango. Facultad de Ciencias Forestales.

Río Papaloapan y Blvd. Durango s/n. Col. Valle del Sur. 34120, Durango. Durango,
México. [email protected], * [email protected]
2 Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí. Facultad de Ingeniería. Manuel Nava N° 8.
Zona Universitaria. 78280. San Luis Potosí. S. L. P. México. [email protected]

Tomo 52 • N° 1 • 2020 175

 J. M. Zúñiga-Vásquez, C. A. Aguirre-Salado, M. Pompa-García

Resumen

El análisis de datos de series de tiempo con sensores remotos proporciona una

mejor comprensión de la dinámica de la vegetación, ya que se conocen las condiciones
y cambios previos que se han producido en un período determinado. El objetivo de este
trabajo fue analizar el estado actual y los avances recientes en el uso de datos de series
de tiempo obtenidos de sensores remotos para el monitoreo de vegetación. Se realizó
una búsqueda sistemática de artículos científicos y se encontraron 167 artículos publi-
cados entre 1996 y 2017. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en la cantidad de
años analizados entre las series temporales analizadas con un solo sensor y aquellas
analizadas con una combinación de varios sensores (es decir, Landsat y SPOT, Landsat y
Sentinel, entre otros). El número de años analizados con datos de series de tiempo fue
similar, ya sea utilizando un solo sensor o una combinación de diferentes sensores. Sin
embargo, la combinación de datos de diferentes sensores (fusión de imágenes) puede
mejorar la calidad de los resultados. También se debe prestar especial atención a la
fusión de datos ópticos y de radar, ya que ofrecen información espectral y estructural
más exclusiva para las evaluaciones de la cubierta terrestre y el uso de la tierra.

Palabras clave
fenología • cobertura de la tierra • análisis multi-temporal de teledetección • análisis
espacio-temporal • fusión de imágenes

Introduction

Characterizing plant cover is vegetation monitoring include Landsat

essential for managing natural resources, (TM, ETM + and currently Landsat 8 OLI),
modeling environmental variables and SPOT, MODIS, NOAA-AVHRR, IKONOS and
understanding habitat distribution (14). QuickBird (36, 44).
Vegetation dynamics have been monitored In recent years, sensor capabilities
using a variety of approaches, from obser- have considerably improved in terms
vational methods conducted directly in the of spatial, spectral and temporal
field (26) to those based on remote sensing resolution (44). This technological
(2) from plot level (1), to regional (9, 37) evolution provides information in greater
and global scales (7). Different vegetation quantity and with improved precision (5).
classes or types can be identified by their Increased accessibility to remote sensing
unique spectral characteristics i.e. reflec- data and greater computing capacity have
tance or emissivity (44). Thus, remote completely changed the way of using
sensing offers an advantageous method these data. At present, the use of more
of monitoring since imagery can cover complex analysis with novel algorithms
large geographic areas, and has become for detecting changes in vegetation cover
an essential method for understanding using time series data is becoming more
large-scale environmental changes (22). frequent (46). Although there is current
While a plethora of remote sensors research that reports trends in the use of
exist, those most commonly applied in time series data, these studies only report

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 Monitoring vegetation using remote sensing time series data

trends for a single sensor (e.g. Landsat) The papers were classified into two
(4, 46), while other remote sensors have groups: those using one sensor and those
not been the subject of extensive review. presenting a combination of two or more
It is therefore necessary to report trends sensors (e.g. Landsat sensors and SPOT
in the use of time series data for the sensors combination, Landsat sensors
monitoring of vegetation with respect and Sentinel sensors combination, among
to more sensors, greater periodicity and others). A means test (Kruskal-Wallis test,
involving the study of more ecosystems. p ≤ 0.05) was performed in R Studio (2013)
For this reason, the main objective of this between these groups in order to identify
research was to analyze the current status which group featured the most robust time
and recent advances in the use of time series (more years analyzed). To ensure
series data obtained from remote sensors coherence of the results in this review,
for vegetation monitoring. Systemati- opinions were sought from experts.
zation of this collection in a database
will provide an overview with which to
identify the background, knowledge gaps Results
and trends of the current research.
Temporal trend
Initially, 186 papers were detected by
Materials and Methods the search, of which 167 were chosen for
analysis (see supplementary material).
A search of scientific papers exploring Studies of all types of vegetation and
the topic of "monitoring of vegetation climate were included. The rest of papers
using time series data" was carried out did not study vegetation, and some
using the Web of Science website (http:// articles even belonged to other branches
apps.webofknowledge.com). A database of science. The 167 papers analyzed were
of published papers was constructed published in the period 1996 to 2017
containing the following information (August). No papers were found for the
fields: reference, year of publication, year 1998, and the highest number of
paper title, journal, impact factor, source papers on the study topic was published
of funding, spatialized (mapped) results, in 2012. Three periods of research output
number of authors, number of institu- productivity were identified: the first was
tions involved, study objective, area of observed during the period 1996-2002,
influence, country, size and location of with an average of 1 to 3 papers published
the study area, vegetation and land use, per year; the second covered the period
climate, platform/sensor, number of 2003-2010, with an average of 3 to 10
sensors used, spatial resolution, number papers published per year; and the third
of images analyzed, years analyzed, was identified for the period 2011-2017,
main data, ancillary data, software, main with an average of 11 to 18 papers. This
algorithms used and purpose of algorithm revealed a clear and increasing trend in
and variables of interest. The data were the number of papers published per year
subsequently grouped into ranges and from 1996 to 2017 (figure 1, page 178).
categories of similar data in order to
facilitate their representation and statis-
tical description.

Tomo 52 • N° 1 • 2020 177

 J. M. Zúñiga-Vásquez, C. A. Aguirre-Salado, M. Pompa-García

21

18

15
N° Papers
12

2014
2015
2011
2012
2013
2009
2010
2006
2007
2008
2004
2005
2001
2002
2003
1999
2000
1996
1997

2016
2017
Year

Figure 1. Number of papers/studies grouped by year of publication in vegetation

monitoring using time series data (167 papers consulted).
Figura 1. Número de investigaciones/estudios agrupados por año de
publicación en el monitoreo de vegetación usando datos de series de tiempo
(167 documentos consultados).

Most preferred journal for publication the main ecosystem and climate studied
The published papers were mainly worldwide are forests and the tropical
distributed among 70 journals, where the climate, respectively.
lowest impact factor was 0.2442 for the
"Iranian Journal of Science & Technology", Most used approach/methodology
and the highest was 8.502 for the journal The main methodologies found are
"Global Change Biology". In addition, based on classification of plant cover and
there were journals that were prominent monitoring of phenological states. Most of
in terms of quantity of publications these methods use the vegetation index
(table 1, page 179). NDVI as the main element. These, in combi-
nation with other algorithms, help the
Papers published per country extraction of results. An interesting aspect
While time series data analysis for found was that the research mostly utilized
monitoring vegetation has been conducted climatic information as ancillary data. In
practically worldwide, China and Brazil table 2 (page 181), vegetation monitoring
are the prominent countries in terms of is summarized. The NDVI is the most
the number of studies published (figure 2, reported algorithm in the literature.
page 179).
Sensors used
Most studied ecosystems The most used satellites were SPOT,
The main ecosystems studied, as well followed by Landsat, although it should
as the main types of climate that occur be noted that a combination of data from
in the data analyzed, are shown in figure several different satellites is used in some
3 (page 180). It should be noted that studies (table 3, page 181).

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 Monitoring vegetation using remote sensing time series data

Table 1. Journals with highest number of publications in vegetation monitoring using

time series data (167 papers consulted).
Tabla 1. Revistas con más publicaciones en el monitoreo de vegetación usando datos
de series de tiempo (167 artículos consultados).

Journal Impact factor Number of publications Percentage

Remote Sensing of Environment 6.265 27 16.16

International Journal of Remote Sensing 1.724 27 16.16

Remote Sensing 3.244 11 6.58

International Journal of Applied Earth

3.93 9 5.38
Observation and Geoinformation

Forest Ecology and Management 3.064 5 2.99

Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 1.107 5 2.94

Others (5 publications) - 83 49.70

Total   167 100

Figure 2. Global studies published in the field of vegetation monitoring using time
series data, grouped by country (167 papers consulted).
Figura 2. Estudios publicados a nivel global en el campo del monitoreo de vegetación
usando datos de series de tiempo, agrupados por país (167 documentos consultados).

Tomo 52 • N° 1 • 2020 179

 J. M. Zúñiga-Vásquez, C. A. Aguirre-Salado, M. Pompa-García

80 a
70

60

50
N° Papers

40

30

20

10

0
Forest Grasslands Agriculture Global Other Not reported

Ecosystem or land use

100 b
90
80
70
60
N° Papers

50
40
30
20
10
0
Tropical Sub-tropical Temperate Semi-arid Cold Not reported

Climate

Figure 3. Papers published on vegetation monitoring using time series data, grouped
by type of ecosystem (a) and by type of climate (b), from a total of 167 papers analyzed.
Figura 3. Documentos publicados sobre el monitoreo de la vegetación usando
datos de series de tiempo, agrupados por tipo de ecosistema (a) y por tipo de clima
(b) estudiado, 167 artículos analizados.

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 Monitoring vegetation using remote sensing time series data

Table 2. Main algorithms/indexes and approaches for vegetation monitoring using

time series data.
Tabla 2. Principales algoritmos/índices y enfoques para el monitoreo de la vegetación
usando datos de series de tiempo.
Number of publications
Algorithm/index Main purpose
in which it appears
Normalized Difference To determine vegetation status, discrimination
72
Vegetation Index (NDVI) of vegetation cover and soil loss.

Supervised Classification 12 Classify types of land use and vegetation.

Leaf Area Index (LAI) 10 Condition of vegetation, vegetation cover.

Difference Normalized Burn

9 Classification of post-fire vegetation.
Ratio (DNBR)

Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) 6 To determine vegetation phenology.

Others 58 -

Table 3. Most used satellites/sensors in published papers addressing vegetation

monitoring using time series data (167 papers consulted).
Tabla 3. Satélites/sensores más utilizados en artículos publicados sobre el monitoreo
de la vegetación utilizando datos de series de tiempo (167 documentos consultados).

Satellite Sensor Spatial resolution (m) Number of papers

Vegetation (VGT-II) 1000 15
SPOT 5
HRG (Xi) 10-20 7
Vegetation (VGT-I) 1000 77
SPOT 4
HRVIR (Xi) 20 3
SPOT 2, 3 HRV (XS) 20 12
Landsat 8 OLI 30 9
Landsat 7 ETM+ 30 24
Landsat 5 TM 30 24
Landsat 1, 2,3 MSS 30 6
Aqua MODIS (MYD) 250, 500, 1000 4
MODIS (MOD) 250, 500, 1000 32
Terra
MISR 1100 1
Aqua/Terra MODIS (MCD) 250, 500, 1000 9
NOAA AVHRR 1000, 4000, 8000, 64000 28
Others 1.8, 4, 300, 500, 1000 13

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 J. M. Zúñiga-Vásquez, C. A. Aguirre-Salado, M. Pompa-García

It was also found that most of the Specifically, the most analyzed period
studies featured analysis of periods from 1 was from 2000 to 2010 (figure 5) since it
to 10 years, while only one study analyzed was observed that the time series studies
a period of more than 40 years (110 years) mainly analyzed the period from the year
(figure 4). 1980 to date.

120

100
Number of studies

80

60

40

20

0
1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 > 40
Years analyzed per class

Figure 4. Number of papers grouped by the category of number of years of remotely

sensed time series data used for vegetation monitoring.
Figura 4. Número de artículos agrupados por la categoría de años de datos de series
temporales de teledetección utilizados para el monitoreo de la vegetación.

Time series
Papers consulted

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Years
Figure 5. Starting and ending years of the time series data analyzed in vegetation
monitoring studies (167 papers consulted, the period between the dotted vertical line
denotes the most commonly analyzed period of time).
Figura 5. Año de inicio y final de las series de tiempo analizadas en estudios de
monitoreo de la vegetación (167 documentos consultados, el período entre la línea
vertical punteada indica el período de tiempo más analizado).

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 Monitoring vegetation using remote sensing time series data

The reviewed papers and the opinions Discussion

of experts indicate that, in recent years,
the combination of data (image fusion) Our study reveals some important
from different sensors (e.g. Landsat trends found in vegetation monitoring
sensors and SPOT sensors combination, studies using time series data over the
Landsat sensors and Sentinel sensors period 1996-2017 (August). The number
combination, among others) has served of vegetation monitoring papers published
to improve its quality (45) and therefore using time series data has shown a
deserves special attention. Our results considerable increase over the last 7 years
indicated that 77 of 167 articles used of this period. This supports that reported
combinations of several sensors. These by Zhuang et al. (2013), who also found
papers have mostly been published in the a significant increase in the number of
last decade, thus representing a current papers published in recent decades in
trend in the analysis of time series data. the field of remote sensing. This pattern
No significant difference was found is due to the fact that remote sensing is a
between the average of the number of rapidly advancing technology and has in
years analyzed using only one sensor recent years experienced unprecedented
(8.18 years) and that using a combination growth due to the development of sensors
of several sensors (8.4 years) (significance and increased information technology
of 0.05) (figure 6). capacities, including processing, storage
and data base formation (30).

50
Average number of years analized

40

30

20

10

0
Studies that used a1single sensor Studies thah2used a combination
of two/more sensors

Figure 6. Comparison of the number of years of vegetation monitoring analyzed using

time series data, performed with a single sensor or with a combination of several
sensors. Total of 167 papers analyzed.
Figura 6. Comparación del número de años de monitoreo de vegetación analizados
utilizando datos de series de tiempo, realizados con un solo sensor y con una
combinación de varios sensores, 167 artículos analizados.

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 J. M. Zúñiga-Vásquez, C. A. Aguirre-Salado, M. Pompa-García

The journals that published the greatest A further important factor in vegetation
number of papers in the field of vegetation monitoring using time series data, is that
monitoring using time series data were of the satellites utilized. Landsat satellites
Remote Sensing of Environment and are the most commonly used in remote
International Journal of Remote Sensing. sensing; however, in the analyzed data,
Likewise, Zhuang et al. (2013) reported SPOT satellites appear as the most used
that these two journals are among those in multi-temporal studies. This could be
with the most papers published in the explained by some limitations of Landsat,
field of remote sensing over recent years. (e.g. temporal resolution or images
In terms of the geographic location of contaminated by cloud and shadow)
scientific production, China and Brazil are (12). For this reason, the suite of SPOT
the leaders in this field (48). These two sensors is the most widely used alter-
countries are in the group of 20 countries native to Landsat (32) and some authors
with the highest scientific production state that it is particularly suitable for
(published papers) in the field of remote vegetation mapping at global and regional
sensing. Indeed, China is the second most scales (44). With regards to Landsat, it
productive country in the world, after the should be noted that most studies that use
United States (48). Landsat data correspond to more recent
The most studied ecosystem is forest, years, since initiation of the free and open
followed by grassland and then by Landsat data policy in 2008 (47). This
general global monitoring of vegetation. is therefore a satellite of great potential
This is logical, since forests are the for the future given its availability (i.e.
most widely distributed ecosystems free and open access). In recent decades,
on the planet (42). However, it should be the cost of data storage has dramatically
noted that the study of other ecosystems decreased, providing a viable basis for
is also of great importance. time series analysis that demands Landsat
Of the 167 papers reviewed, the data (46).
methodologies used for vegetation Most studies have analyzed time series
monitoring most commonly featured the of between 1 and 10 years. However,
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index since 2010, more complex investiga-
(NDVI). The NDVI, developed by Rouse tions have been carried out. This could
et al. (1974), stands out in that, since also be strongly influenced by the free
its appearance, it has quickly become access policies of Landsat, as mentioned
the most dominant satellite observable above, as well as the launch of the MODIS
metric for spatio-temporal changes (18) sensor onboard the Aqua/ Terra satellites
and has been successfully used to explore notable for its temporal resolution (28).
vegetation dynamics (20), although Remote sensing is a rapidly advancing
in recent years there has also been an technology (40) and has now reached a
attempt to improve and evaluate the price point where the images acquired by
performance of algorithms and indices these systems are truly accessible (36).
to improve vegetation monitoring (35).
Some notable studies were also found,
using a considerable number of indices
(6, 11, 19, 23).

Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias 184

 Monitoring vegetation using remote sensing time series data

New trends for the analysis of time beneficial for vegetation monitoring. Since
series data optical and SAR image data respond to crop
Advances in remote sensing technology, characteristics differently, their comple-
in terms of software, processes and infor- mentary information can be valuable to
mation acquisition, mean that it is now support vegetation monitoring (39).
possible to conduct research with data Another aspect of great interest, at
from several different sensors (2, 15, 24, present and for the future, is the use of
29, 31). While this could in theory produce free access data and software. According
more robust time series, statistical to Wulder et al. (2012), open access to data
testing shows that there is no significant promotes greater international collabo-
difference between time series analyzed ration to meet the land observation needs
with data from a single sensor and those of the twenty-first century. In this sense,
analyzed with a combination of data from the Landsat satellite network stands out
several sensors. Nevertheless, the combi- for both the long history and free access
nation of data (image fusion) improves of its data set (25). It is also important to
the quality of the results (13) since this mention the establishment of a Landsat-9
technique can integrate different image Architecture Study Team that define
data and provide more information than capabilities and implementation strategy.
the derived from a single sensor (39). Landsat-9 has been authorized and is
In this sense, K. de Beurs (personal proceeding towards a December 2020
communication, February 16, 2018) launch. Planning for missions beyond
indicates that special attention should be Landsat-9 is also underway, with the USGS
given to the use of fusion of optical and radar defining future Landsat measurement
data, since this offers more unique spectral needs (e.g., Landsat-10 and -11) (43).
and structural information for land cover While the ability to use a multitude
and land use assessments. This coincides of images acquired in a single region has
with Joshi et al. (2016), who indicate changed the perception on the Landsat
that future research should focus on the value, some properties of this satellite
development of robust optical and radar are currently critical (41). One limitation
data fusion techniques, including those that of Landsat is that the satellites can only
test the frequency with which time series revisit the same area every 16 days, and
and variable spatial resolution data sets can the acquired Landsat data for specific
be combined in a significant manner with a areas can be contaminated by cloud and
minimum loss of information. shadow. The temporally sparse time-series
The main difference between these Landsat data are, therefore, unsuitable for
types of data is that, compared to optical global monitoring of rapid changes in the
satellite images, synthetic aperture vegetation and terrestrial surface (12).
radars (SARs) have certain advantages A potential approach for utilization of
for vegetation monitoring due to the Landsat data is represented by data fusion
fact that microwave sensors have longer techniques that integrate imagery across
wavelengths, can penetrate vegetation sensors, effectively leveraging the most
canopies, and are not influenced by the desirable characteristics from multiple
presence of clouds or haze (16, 17). sensors. The spatial, spectral and temporal
Some SARs have a short revisit time and resolution of any given sensor can thus
high spatial resolution, which could be potentially be enhanced by merging bands
within or across sensors (32).

Tomo 52 • N° 1 • 2020 185

 J. M. Zúñiga-Vásquez, C. A. Aguirre-Salado, M. Pompa-García

Special attention should also be paid of vegetation monitoring studies using

to the Sentinel-2 satellite since, in terms time series data. The main ecosystems
of spatial and temporal resolution, it studied are the forests, although in recent
provides an alternative to SPOT and years it is common to find studies of
Landsat, with narrower bands for better vegetation monitoring at the global scale.
identification of characteristics, additional The SPOT satellites have been the most
channels in the red edge spectral domain used for vegetation monitoring using time
that allow evaluation of vegetation series data, but Landsat satellites aim
status and specific bands for improved to be the most popular in the future due
atmospheric correction (10, 27). There to the availability, periodicity and easy
has even been experimentation with handling of its data. Also important is the
the fusion of Landsat and Sentinel-2 Sentinel-2 satellite, which is notable for its
satellite data, showing great potential greater temporal resolution.
for timely monitoring of rapid changes On average, the number of years
(38). Currently, the Harmonized Landsat/ analyzed with time series data was similar
Sentinel-2 (HLS) project provides a using either a single sensor or a combi-
surface reflectance product that combines nation of different sensors. However
observations from USGS/NASA's Landsat 8 the combination of data from different
and ESA's Sentinel-2 satellites at moderate sensors (image fusion) can improve
spatial resolution (30 m). The main goal is results quality, while the use of fusion of
to provide a unique dataset based on the optical and radar data points towards a
data of both satellites in order to reduce new trend in this field.
the revisit time to 3-5 days, depending on Our findings in this review of literature
latitude (8). on vegetation monitoring using time
series data will contribute to future work
in this field, improving decision-making
Conclusions about periods for analysis and appro-
priate data selection from remote sensors.
Most of the articles analyzed (64.7%)
were published in the last 7 years of the Supplementary Material
study period, reflecting the great changes https://drive.google.com/
that remote sensing has undergone in open?id=1bMilH96d1E--7PLI1VhwkzIFX-
terms of data availability. China and Brazil pT3Z4GL
are the countries with the highest number

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