TESIS MIGUEL DOCTORADO Split Merge
TESIS MIGUEL DOCTORADO Split Merge
TESIS MIGUEL DOCTORADO Split Merge
FACULTAD DE QUÍMICA
TESIS
PRESENTA:
DIRIGIDA POR:
1
El presente trabajo se realizó en las instalaciones del Centro Conjunto de
Investigación en Química Sustentable UAEM-UNAM y en el Laboratorio de
Investigación y Desarrollo de Materiales Avanzados (LIDMA) de la Facultad de
Química de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, así como en el
Laboratorio de Ingeniería de Materiales de la Facultad de Ingeniería de la
Universidad Federal Fluminense de Río de Janeiro Brasil. Fue dirigido por el Dr.
Carlos Eduardo Barrera Díaz, Dr. Gonzalo Martínez Barrera y Dr. Fernando Ureña
Núñez.
3
Este trabajo de investigación fue registrado con el título: “Modificación
fisicoquímica mediante radiación gamma de los materiales de reciclo
provenientes de envases tetra pak y su reuso en concreto polimérico” con
número de registro DCAAM-0813 ante la Secretaría de Investigación y Estudios
Avanzados (SIEA).
4
ÍNDICE
Resumen 10
JUSTIFICACIÓN 36
HIPÓTESIS 37
OBJETIVO 37
6
Pak sin irradiar e irradiadas)
Capítulo 3. RESULTADOS 43
CONCLUSIONES 175
REFERENCIAS 177
7
RELACIÓN DE TABLAS
8
RELACIÓN DE FIGURAS
Figura 1 Capas del envase de Tetra Pak.
Figura 2 Hidropulpeador.
Figura 3 Reacción general de polimerización por adición.
Figura 4 Estructura molecular de la celulosa.
Figura 5 Estructura molecular del polietileno
Figura 6 Geometría de la fase dispersa. a) concentración, b) tamaño, c) forma, d)
distribución y e) orientación.
Figura 7 Efecto fotoeléctrico.
Figura 8 Efecto Compton.
Figura 9 Formación de pares.
Figura 10 Temperatura de transición vítrea de resina de poliéster insaturada y
composito resina/yeso irradiados a diferentes dosis.
Figura 11 Resistencia a la compresión de resina de poliéster insaturada y
composito resina/yeso irradiados a diferentes dosis.
Figura 12 Punto de fusión de polietileno irradiado en atmósfera de nitrógeno y aire.
Figura 13 Índice de cristalinidad de polietileno irradiado en atmósfera de nitrógeno y
aire.
Figura 14 Difractogramas de celulosa reciclada e irradiada.
Figura 15 Índice de cristalinidad (ICR) de las fibras de celulosa recicladas.
Figura 16 Distancia interplanar de los picos conforme se incrementa la dosis de
radiación gamma.
Figura 17 Espectro infrarrojo de las fibras de celulosa sin irradiar e irradiadas a
diferentes dosis, en la región de 4000 a 2000 cm-1.
Figura 18 Porcentaje de diferencia en transmitancia respecto a la celulosa sin
irradiar.
Figura 19 Espectro infrarrojo de las fibras de celulosa sin irradiar e irradiadas a
diferentes dosis, en la región de 2000 a 700 cm-1.
Figura 20 Porcentaje de diferencia en transmitancia respecto a la celulosa sin
irradiar.
Figura 21 Microscopía electrónica de barrido de fibras de celulosa irradiada.
9
RESUMEN
Los resultados obtenidos muestran que para las muestras irradiadas a 100 y 200
kGy la resistencia es mayor (hasta 15 %) respecto al concreto control (90 MPa).
Para probetas irradiadas y sin irradiar, la resistencia a la compresión disminuye
gradualmente al incrementar el porcentaje de partículas. Respecto a la resistencia
a la flexión, al incrementar el porcentaje de partículas o dosis de radiación gamma,
la resistencia disminuye gradualmente. Los valores más altos se obtuvieron con
1% de partículas y 100 kGy de radiación (14% mayor respecto al concreto control).
Un comportamiento similar se presenta en el módulo de elasticidad donde el valor
más alto se presenta con 1% de Tetra Pak y 100 kGy de radiación (34 GPa).
10
propiedades mecánicas del concreto polimérico con partículas de Tetra Pak
reciclado se obtienen con 1% de partículas y 100 KGy de radiación.
11
ABSTRACT
Tetra Pak recycled particles were added to polymer concrete (manufactured with
polyester resin and silica sand), for partial replacement of silica sand in order to
improve their mechanical properties, in particular compressive and flexural
strength, modulus of elasticity and strain. The Tetra Pak particle sizes were 0.85,
1.40 and 2.36 mm, while particle concentrations of 0, 1, 2, 4 and 6%, and gamma
radiation dose of 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 kGy.
The results show improvement of the mechanical strength (up to 15%) for
concretes irradiated at 100 and 200 kGy when comparing to unirradiated concrete.
For both irradiated and unirradiated concretes, the compressive strength
decreases gradually when particle concentration increases. Moreover, the flexural
strength gradually decreases when increasing either particle concentrations or
gamma irradiation dose. Nevertheless, 14% of improvement was obtained for
concretes with 1% of particles and 100 kGy of radiation. Similar behavior was
observed for modulus of elasticity, where concretes with 1% of Tetra Pak and 100
kGy of irradiation dose had the highest values.
The most notable changes were observed for the deformation property of
concretes, where the highest values had up to 30% of improvement respect to
unirradiated concrete. In general, deformation increases with increasing radiation
dose for all concentrations of particles; the highest value was obtained for 1% of
Tetra Pak particles and 400 kGy of irradiation.
The characterization of recycled cellulose shows when this is irradiated modifies its
crystallinity index, being greater at 200 kGy. The micrograph shows that the fibers
have irregular forms and with impurities on the surface due to the recycling
process; not significant change is observed to subjecting the fibers to ionizing
radiation. Based on infrared spectroscopy, no changes were observed in the
functional groups of cellulose to be irradiated.
12
CAPÍTULO 1
MARCO TEÓRICO
1.1 Residuos Sólidos Urbanos (RSU) y Medio Ambiente.
Los residuos sólidos urbanos (RSU), son los que se generan en las casas
habitación como resultado de la eliminación de los materiales que se utilizan en
las actividades domésticas (por ejemplo, de los productos de consumo y sus
envases, embalajes o empaques), o los que provienen también de cualquier otra
actividad que se desarrolla dentro de los establecimientos o en la vía pública, con
características domiciliarias, y los resultantes de las vías y lugares públicos
siempre que no sean considerados como residuos de otra índole [1].
13
Tabla 1. Residuos sólidos urbanos generados en 2011.
Residuos Porcentaje
(%)
Residuos de comida, jardines 52.4
y materiales orgánicos
Papel, cartón, productos de papel 13.8
Plásticos 10.9
Vidrios 5.9
Aluminio 1.7
Textiles 1.4
Metales ferrosos 1.1
Metales no ferrosos 0.6
Otro tipo de basura 12.1
Después de su vida útil, existen diversas etapas de los residuos, que abarcan su
recolección, reciclaje y disposición final. En México se cuenta con dos tipos de
sitios de disposición final: los rellenos sanitarios y los rellenos de tierra
controlados. Los rellenos sanitarios constituyen la mejor solución para la
disposición final de los residuos sólidos urbanos; este tipo de infraestructura
involucra métodos y obras de ingeniería particulares que controlan básicamente la
fuga de lixiviados y la generación de biogases. Por su parte, los rellenos de tierra
controlados, aunque comparten las especificaciones de los rellenos sanitarios en
cuanto a infraestructura y operación, no cumplen con las especificaciones de
impermeabilización para el control de los lixiviados.
Materiales %
Papel y cartón 42.2
Vidrio 28.6
Metales 27.8
Plásticos 1.2
Textiles 0.2
14
Como se puede observar se ha enfocado el reciclaje hacia el papel y el cartón, ya
sea en forma individual o bien como parte de algún producto, como el caso de los
envases de Tetra Pak, que contienen cartón.
En los años 50’s Ruben Rausing diseño los envases de Tetra Pak® siguiendo uno
de los fundamentos de la sustentabilidad: ahorrar más de lo que cuesta, en el
aspecto económico, ambiental y social.
Los envases de Tetra Pak para bebidas están constituidos de papel (75%),
polietileno de baja densidad (20%) y aluminio (5%); y conformados por 6 capas
(Figura 1), cuyas funciones son:
15
En 2012 la compañía Tetra Pak produjo 173 mil millones de envases para
contener toda clase de productos, los cuales se distribuyen en 170 países. Tiene
en operación 8707 máquinas de envasado y 67 mil unidades de procesamiento.
Reportó 16 mil millones de dólares en ventas en 2012 [2].
Los envases de Tetra Pak una vez que cumplen su función como contenedores de
alimentos presentan un valor agregado, ya que pueden: a) ser incinerados para
producir energía, b) reciclados para la fabricación de papel, y c) reutilizados para
fabricación de láminas y productos aglomerados.
El proceso más conocido para reciclar los envases de Tetra Pak es a través de un
hidropulpeador (Figura 2). En éste, las capas de polietileno y aluminio
(polialuminio) se separan mecánicamente del cartón; de este último se obtienen
fibras de celulosa de alta calidad, que se utilizan en la producción de papel y
cartón; mientras que el polialuminio se puede utilizar como materia prima en
procesos de transformación, tales como: extrusión e inyección de plásticos,
moldeo por compresión, fabricación de materiales compuestos y mezclas con
polímeros. También puede servir como materia prima para producir artículos de
plástico como paneles y cepillos [3, 4].
16
Figura 2. Hidropulpeador: proceso de separación de la celulosa y polialuminio.
Los envases Tetra Pak tiene alto valor calorífico, si se considera que dos
toneladas de envases de este tipo equivalen aproximadamente al valor energético
de una tonelada de gasolina, por lo cual al desecharse pueden ser empleados
como combustible alterno para recuperar energía.
Otra forma de reciclar los envases de Tetra Pak, es mediante el uso de energía
eléctrica la cual produce un plasma térmico a 15, 000 °C, que ioniza la mezcla de
plástico-aluminio, y da como resultado la transformación del plástico en parafina, y
la recuperación del aluminio en su forma pura.
17
Algunas empresas han creado equipos para limpiar el polialuminio después del
proceso de reciclado. Estos equipos permiten mayor efectividad en la
recuperación de fibras y al mismo tiempo proveen polialuminio de mayor calidad,
que es utilizado en el moldeo por inyección, o bien en la elaboración de láminas de
bajo costo para viviendas. Las propiedades del polialuminio recuperado de los
envases de Tetra Pak se muestran en la Tabla 3.
Propiedad Valor
Tensión a la ruptura, MPa 10.9
Elongación a la ruptura, % 38.8
Modulo elástico, MPa 177.6
Resistencia al impacto Izod, MPa 302.0
Conductividad eléctrica, S/cm 1.11 x10-8
Densidad, g/cm3 0.9
Uno de los factores limitantes para el éxito de los programas de reciclaje que
promueven las empresas productoras de Tetra Pak en los diferentes países en los
que se encuentran, incluyendo México, es la separación eficiente de los envases
vacíos.
1.3 Polímeros.
18
Respecto a su comportamiento térmico, si se funden y fluyen cuando se someten
a condiciones de elevada temperatura. Estas distinciones permiten dividirlos en: a)
Termoplásticos: cuando tienen la capacidad de volverse a fundir después de haber
solidificado. Cuando se solidifican, pueden adquirir dos tipos diferentes de
estructuras: amorfa y semicristalina. Ejemplos de estos son: polietileno y
polipropileno; b) Termoestables: los que no pueden volverse a fundir una vez que
han solidificado, como es el caso de las resinas [6].
1.3.2. Celulosa.
19
Figura 4. Estructura molecular de la celulosa.
El algodón contiene 90% de celulosa, mientras que la madera 50% y las plantas
33%. La producción anual de celulosa generada por las plantas es de 1012
toneladas. De esta producción, 108 toneladas se utilizan como materia prima en la
producción de papel [8-11].
Existen diferentes tipos de polietileno, entre ellos los de baja densidad (LDPE), y
los de alta densidad (HDPE). El de baja densidad tiene una estructura de cadena
enramada, y el de alta densidad, una de cadena recta.
20
Tabla 4. Propiedades físicas y mecánicas del polietileno.
Propiedad Valor
Punto de Fusión, oC 110
Densidad
a 20oC 0.92
a 50oC 0.90
a 80oC 0.87
a 110oC 0.81
Módulo de Young, Kg/cm2 1.6
Resistencia a la tracción, Kg/cm2 150
Dureza Brinell 2
Propiedad Valor
Densidad, kg/cm3 2.69
Punto de fusión, oC 660
Punto de ebullición, oC 2.51
Conductividad eléctrica, S/m 37.7 x 106
Conductividad térmica, W/(K·m) 237
Módulo elástico, GPa 70
Los envases producidos con aluminio son muy ligeros, permiten que el producto
contenido en ellos tenga larga vida en anaquel y no afectan su sabor o calidad,
siendo impermeables a la humedad, a los gases, a la luz y a los olores. Además,
los envases de aluminio son fácilmente comprimidos cuando se convierten en
residuos, lo cual hace ventajoso su reciclaje, a través de su fundición y conversión
en lingotes que se transforman en láminas de aluminio que vuelve a usarse, con
bajo consumo de energía y agua.
En los rellenos sanitarios el aluminio y sus óxidos permanecen inertes, por lo cual
no representan riesgos ambientales.
21
1.4 Concreto Polimérico.
22
Las propiedades de los concretos poliméricos son:
Propiedad Valor
2
Resistencia a la compresión, kg/cm 900-1500
2
Resistencia a la tensión, kg/cm 120-190
2
Resistencia a la tensión, kg/cm 190-300
3 2
Resistencia a la abrasión, cm /cm 0.025
Peso específico, kg/dm3 1.8-2.3
Módulo de elasticidad, kg/cm2 0.4-0.45 x106
Absorción de agua, % 0.3-0.6
Conductividad térmica, Kcal/mh°C 0.8-2.6
Resistencia a la temperatura, °C -40 -100
23
Uno de los problemas asociados con el uso de resinas de poliéster en la
elaboración de concretos poliméricos es su contracción volumétrica de 6 a 8%
durante el curado, provocando cambios en la estabilidad dimensional. Problema
que ha sido resuelto, hasta cierto punto, mediante la adición de materiales de
refuerzo [18].
Los productos hechos con cemento Pórtland y fibras naturales, tales como la fibra
de coco, sisal, bagazo de caña, bambú, yute, madera y fibras vegetales, han sido
probados con éxito y utilizados en los edificios en al menos 40 países diferentes.
No obstante, una limitante es la durabilidad. Estudios recientes indican que la
adición de fibras naturales a concretos hidráulicos disminuye ligeramente la
resistencia a la compresión, pero la resistencia a la tracción, a la flexión y la
tenacidad son sustancialmente incrementados [19].
A pesar del éxito en concretos hidráulicos, existe muy poca información sobre los
efectos y beneficios de las fibras en concretos poliméricos. En concretos
poliméricos a base de resina poliéster, el uso de pequeñas concentraciones de
fibras garantiza una mezcla homogénea. Se ha reportado mejoramiento del 95%
en la resistencia a la flexión, cuando se agregan fibras de vidrio como refuerzo y
silano como agente de acoplamiento. Otro estudio señala que las fibras de vidrio
cortas y las fibras de carbono mejoran las propiedades de fractura [19,20].
24
Figura 6. Geometría de la fase dispersa. a) concentración, b) tamaño, c) forma, d)
distribución y e) orientación.
Lograr una buena adhesión entre la matriz y el refuerzo no es tarea fácil, ya que
en general se trata de materiales diferentes (polímero, cerámico, metal), y una
adecuada adhesión depende del contacto íntimo de los átomos en la superficie de
uno y otro componente [24]. Razón por la cual se ha desarrollado toda un área de
25
aditivos que permiten mayor compatibilidad con la matriz, y aumento de la
adhesión entre los componentes del material compuesto.
26
refuerzo/matriz. Esta modificación hace que la interfase sea más resistente, es
decir, con mayor capacidad para transferir cargas mecánicas desde la matriz al
refuerzo. La inclusión del agente de acoplamiento genera una superficie
químicamente activa gracias a los grupos funcionales que pueden estar presentes
en el silano. Estos grupos funcionales pueden interaccionar químicamente con la
matriz o pueden servir como puntos de anclaje de marcadores [28,29].
Celulosa proveniente de envases Tetra Pakse utilizó como sustituto parcial del
agregado mineral en concretos hidráulicos, a razón de 3, 5 y 7% en peso. Los
resultados muestran que la resistencia a la compresión disminuye más de 50%
para concentraciones de 7%. Para mejorar la interacción interfacial entre la
celulosa y la matriz cementante se sometió el concreto a tratamientos de post-
curado mediante radiación gamma (a dosis de 200, 250 y 300 kGy). Los
27
resultados muestran mejoramiento en la resistencia, superior a 50%, respecto a
los concretos sin irradiar. Se realizaron análisis por microscopía electrónica de
barrido de la superficie de los concretos, relacionando estos con el mejoramiento
en las propiedades mecánicas [34].
La radiación ionizante de alta energía, tal como los rayos X, la radiación gamma,
así como las partículas aceleradas (electrones, protones, iones), se utiliza en
diversas áreas desde hace décadas, para modificar las propiedades físicas y
químicas de materiales. Esto tipo de radiación promueve la ionización y excitación
en el material irradiado para producir radicales libres, que son especies altamente
reactivas. Éstas tienden a reaccionar con los átomos vecinos, produciendo
finalmente el entrecruzamiento y el rompimiento de enlaces. La radiación es la
única fuente de energía que puede iniciar reacciones a cualquier temperatura,
incluida la temperatura ambiente, bajo cualquier presión, en cualquier fase, ya sea
sólida, líquida o gas, sin el uso de catalizadores [37-39].
28
a) Los fotones de energía más baja interactúan sobre todo el material mediante el
efecto fotoeléctrico, por el que el fotón cede toda su energía a un electrón, que
entonces abandona el átomo o molécula. El fotón desaparece (Figura 7).
29
Figura 9. Formación de pares.
30
se traduce en cambios en sus propiedades, como: densidad, coeficiente de
expansión térmica, permeabilidad, resistencia a la corrosión, a la abrasión y a
disolventes, así como en su capacidad aislante. Un efecto importante promovido
por la radiación, es la variación en la masa molecular, la cual proporciona
información sobre la fase cristalina del polímero [45].
Una ruta alternativa para el curado es mediante radiación gamma; la cual tiene
ventajas sobre métodos convencionales: a) ningún catalizador o aditivos son
necesarios para iniciar la reacción, b) la iniciación es homogénea en todo el
31
sistema y la tasa de reticulación es fácilmente controlada mediante la variación de
la tasa de dosis, c) se puede realizar a bajas temperaturas.
32
Figura 11. Resistencia a la compresión de resina de poliéster insaturada, y
compositos resina/yeso irradiados a diferentes dosis.
33
Figura 12. Punto de fusión de polietileno irradiado: a) en atmósfera de nitrógeno y
b) en atmósfera de aire.
34
molecular; mayor grado de viscosidad y de fracción gel se observa en HDPE
cuando es irradiado en presencia de aire, que cuando se utiliza N2. Más aún, las
propiedades mecánicas disminuyen debido a la reticulación, ramificación y ruptura
de cadenas [50-52].
35
JUSTIFICACIÓN
Una vez que un envase de Tetra Pak cumplió su función, se puede reciclar y ser
reutilizado como material combustible para la generación de energía eléctrica, o
para la producción de papel y la fabricación de láminas y productos aglomerados.
El reciclamiento se realiza sobre los materiales de los envases Tetra Pak: celulosa
(75%), polietileno (20%), y aluminio (5%). A la fecha las escasas tecnologías que
existen para el reciclaje de envases de Tetra Pak están basadas en la molienda
mecánica y el uso de sustancias químicas, para la reducción de tamaño y la
separación de los materiales. No se han propuesto tecnologías limpias para el
reciclaje.
Una tecnología alternativa que no has sido tomada en cuenta es el uso de
radiación ionizante de alta energía para el reciclamiento de los materiales de
envases de Tetra Pak. Se tiene conocimiento del reciclaje de polímeros aplicando
radiación gamma; no obstante dicha tecnología se encuentra en proceso de
aceptación desde el punto de vista ecológico y económico.
Una vez modificados los materiales de reciclo de los envases de Tetra Pak,
podrían ser utilizados como materiales de refuerzo en materiales compuestos. Tal
es el caso de concreto polimérico, elaborado con resina polimérica y agregados
minerales. Cabe mencionar que son escasos los trabajos de concretos poliméricos
reforzados con polímeros, menos aún reforzados con materiales de reciclo.
36
HIPÓTESIS
OBJETIVO
Objetivo General:
Estudiar los efectos de la radiación gamma en las propiedades fisicoquímicas de
partículas de celulosa, polietileno y aluminio de envases Tetra Pak de desecho; y
evaluar su contribución como material de refuerzo en las propiedades mecánicas
de concreto polimérico.
Metas:
37
CAPÍTULO 2
DESARROLLO EXPERIMENTAL
2.1.2 Equipo:
38
2.2 Método.
Conclusiones.
39
2.3 Procedimiento experimental.
Las probetas de concreto polimérico se elaboraron con 80% de arena sílice y 20%
de resina poliéster (en peso), así como diferentes porcentajes de fibra (1, 2, 4 y
40
6%). La Tabla 8 muestra los porcentajes de cada componente para la elaboración
de los concretos poliméricos.
41
La evaluación de la resistencia mecánica a la compresión de las probetas de
concreto polimérico se realizó en una Maquina Universal de Pruebas marca
ControlsMR con capacidad de 30 toneladas, localizada en el Laboratorio de
Investigación y Desarrollo de Materiales Avanzados (LIDMA) de la Facultad de
Química de la UAEM, bajo las siguientes especificaciones:
Condiciones Valores
Tipo de ensayo Control
Velocidad, (mm/min) 1.25
Límite superior de fuerza, (ton) 25
Límite superior de posición, (mm) 20
Condiciones Valores
Tipo de ensayo Control
Velocidad, (mm/min) 1.00
Límite superior de fuerza, (ton) 10
Límite superior de posición, (mm) 20
42
CAPÍTULO 3
RESULTADOS
3.2.3 Martínez Barrera G., Vigueras Santiago E., Martínez-López M., Gencel O.,
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento del concreto, en “Temas
43
Selectos en Ciencia de Materiales I”, (eds.: M.A. Camacho López, S.
Hernández López, G. Martínez Barrera, D.A. Solís Casados, E. Vigueras
Santiago), Toluca, México: EÓN. pp. 221-240 (2015). ISBN: 978-607-9426-
28-6.
Estado: publicado.
44
3.1.1 Artículo 1 (publicado).
45
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
International Journal of Polymer Science
Volume 2015, Article ID 763917, 8 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/763917
Research Article
Waste Materials from Tetra Pak Packages as Reinforcement of
Polymer Concrete
Copyright © 2015 Miguel Martı́nez-López et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Different concentrations (from 1 to 6 wt%) and sizes (0.85, 1.40, and 2.36 mm) of waste Tetra Pak particles replaced partially silica
sand in polymer concrete. As is well known, Tetra Pak packages are made up of three raw materials: cellulose (75%), low density
polyethylene (20%), and aluminum (5%). The polymer concrete specimens were elaborated with unsaturated polyester resin (20%)
and silica sand (80%) and irradiated by using gamma rays at 100 and 200 kGy. The obtained results have shown that compressive
and flexural strength and modulus of elasticity decrease gradually, when either Tetra Pak particle concentration or particle size is
increased, as regularly occurs in composite materials. Nevertheless, improvements of 14% on both compressive strength and flexural
strength as well as 5% for modulus of elasticity were obtained when polymer concrete is irradiated.
binder can be thermoplastic or more frequently a thermoset- Table 1: Polymer concrete components.
ting material. Currently polymer concrete is used for the
production of industrial flooring, countertops for bathrooms Lot Resin Sand Waste Tetra Pak particles
and kitchens, saunas, water storage tanks, and prefabricated (code) (%) (%) (%)
structures used in the field of construction. It is also used PC 20 80 0
in electrical applications such as insulators for high voltage PC-1 20 79 1
transmission, support for isolation bushings, and solid-core PC-2 20 78 2
insulation [5–8]. PC-4 20 76 4
Nowadays, because of the more stringent legislation PC-6 20 74 6
regarding the environment and the market demand for
environmentally-friendly products, manufacturers are con-
cerned with developing studies aimed at reducing the envi- the waste plastic concentration is increased [24]; (c) HDPE
ronmental impact, through lowering the amount of produced waste from trash bags as a potential replacement for coarse
residues or by treating those that are inevitably generated aggregate in concrete [25]; (d) ground plastic materials as
during production processes. High costs associated with raw substitute of fine aggregates (up to 20%) in concrete [1]. Such
material extraction, as well as the damage that extraction recycling not only helps conserve natural resources, but also
causes to environment, are also important reasons to motivate helps to solve a growing waste disposal crisis [26].
the use of domestic and industrial residues. Depletion of
reliable, trustable raw material reserves and conservation A lack of information is available regarding recycling of
of nonrenewable sources also contribute to reusing waste Tetra Pak constituent materials (polyethylene, cellulose, and
materials. aluminum) and their use as replacement of aggregates in
Recycling of engineering materials will contribute to polymer concrete. Containers such as Tetra Pak packaging
the sustainability and development of industrial processes. have short useful life, becoming a trash and a serious problem
Nowadays, metals, glass, thermal plastics, and many other for environment. Recycling of such packaging is low, com-
engineering materials are recycled to a great extent. However, pared with its high production of 26.4 billion packages in
composite materials, as a special category of engineering 2012, which were produced in 36 countries.
materials, have not considerable progress in recycling, due to The Tetra Pak beverage containers are made from cellu-
its heterogeneous composition [9]. lose (75%), low density polyethylene (20%), and aluminum
In recent years, various tools and strategies have been (5%). Once the container is discarded, it can be recycled
proposed to meet environmental challenges in the building in three ways: (a) being incinerated to produce electricity,
industry: (a) increasing the use of waste materials, especially (b) being recycled for paper making, and (c) being used
those that are by-products of industrial processes; (b) using for production of sheets and chipboard products. Tetra Pak
recycled materials instead of natural resources (this will make recycling process has many stages; first the containers are
the industry more sustainable); and (c) improving durability, washed to remove traces of originally contained products
mechanical and other properties, by reducing the amount of and after the mechanical grinding process is effected. It is
materials required for replacement [10–16]. important to mention that cellulose located at inner layers
Extensive research and development activities in recy- of the container makes it difficult to remove the water
cling composite materials have been conducted, and various absorbed during the washing process; moreover, high content
technologies have been developed in three categories: (a) of hydroxyl groups of cellulose fibers makes them susceptible
mechanical recycling, (b) thermal recycling, and (c) chem- to water absorption.
ical recycling. Mechanical recycling involves shredding and However, an optional recycling way for Tetra Pak packag-
grinding, followed by screening to separate the component ing is its use as substitute of mineral aggregates in the elabora-
fractions for reuse. Thermal processing uses high temperature tion of polymer concrete, improving its properties, including
to decompose the resin and separate the reinforcements lower weight and density, higher mechanical strength, and
(300–1000∘ C). Moreover, secondary fuel or thermal energy toughness.
is produced through pyrolysis, gasification, or combus- In this work the effect of waste Tetra Pak particles (from
tion. Finally, chemical recycling allows depolymerization or beverage packaging) on the mechanical properties of poly-
removal of the matrix and liberation of the reinforcements for mer concrete was studied. Such particles replaced partially
further recycling by using an organic or inorganic solvent. A siliceous sand in the polymer concrete, elaborated with
cleaner process based on water technology has gained more polyester resin and siliceous sand. In addition, the effect of
attention in the research world and shown an interesting gamma radiation on the compressive and flexural strength
potential [9, 17–21]. was evaluated.
A few investigations have been carried out on the use of
recycled polymeric materials in concrete, covering different 2. Experimental
objectives as (a) recycled PET of bottles for producing very
good quality polymer concrete with low cost for structural 2.1. Specimen Elaboration. Five different polymer concrete
applications [22, 23]; (b) waste plastic aggregates for pro- lots identified by different codes were prepared as seen in
ducing lightweight concrete with low thermal conductivity
and reduced values of compressive and tensile strength when
Table 1. For each lot six specimens were prepared. Standard
prismatic molds (40 × 40 × 160 mm) were used to formulate 47
International Journal of Polymer Science 3
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2: Polymer concrete (a) without Tetra Pak particles and with (b) 2 wt%, (c) 4 wt%, and (d) 6 wt%.
(a) (b)
Figure 3: SEM images of irradiated (a) polyester resin matrix and (b) cellulose from Tetra Pak containers, at 200 kGy.
strength are consequence of the noninteractions between particles (1 and 2 wt%); such increments are 14% higher
resin and Tetra Pak particles. than those for simple polymer concrete, which are attributed
Because particle size does not have major influence on the to the gamma irradiation effects caused in polyester resin
compressive strength values, the polymer concrete with waste as well as in polyethylene and cellulose of the Tetra Pak
particle size of 0.85 mm was used to carry out the irradiation particles [27–29]; (b) for higher particle concentrations (4
process. and 6 wt%), more interactions between the resin matrix and
In Figure 1, two different behaviors are appreciated for Tetra Pak particles are present. Nevertheless, such particles
irradiated polymer concrete: (a) there is increment on the
compressive strength for low concentrations of Tetra Pak
are more crystalline and generate some pores in the polymer
concrete; these pores act as flaws that do not allow an 49
International Journal of Polymer Science 5
28 0.044
24 0.038
22 0.036
0.034
20
0.032
18 0.030
0.028
16
0 1 2 4 6 − 0 1 2 4 6 −
Waste Tetra Pak particles (wt%) Waste Tetra Pak particles (wt%)
Figure 4: Flexural strength of polymer concrete containing waste Figure 5: Compressive strain at yield point of concrete containing
Tetra Pak particles. waste Tetra Pak particles.
0.68
efficient transfer of charges, resulting in low compressive 0.66
strength. 0.64
Flexural strain at yield point (mm)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7: Polymer concrete without Tetra Pak particles (a) and with 1 wt% at different size; (b) 0.85 mm, (c) 1.40 mm, and (d) 2.36 mm.
namely, 0.006 mm/mm. Compressive strain values decrease particles (0.85 mm) were added; thus a more ductile concrete
progressively when adding waste particles. The lowest values is obtained; (b) by contrary, lowest values were obtained for
are obtained for concrete with 6% of particles, which are 16% concrete with large size particles (2.36 mm), being 12% lower
lower than control concrete. Nevertheless, a slight increment than that for control concrete.
is observed for concrete with 1% of waste particles. In general, In the case of irradiated polymer concrete, by irradiating
no significant variations on the values with respect to particle at 100 kGy, concrete deformation decreases up to 6%, for
size were observed; thus certain strain stability was obtained. concrete with 6 wt% of waste particles. Nevertheless, for a
When concrete is irradiated, a maximum improvement of dose of 200 kGy, the strain property is improved by 14%.
6% is obtained for concrete with 1% or 2% of particle concen- Such improvement can be attributed to the stress transfer
trations and irradiated at higher dose (200 kGy). For concrete between polymer matrix and waste particles; it is effective
with higher particle concentrations a detrimental behavior of for concrete with low concentrations (less than 4 wt%) of
flexural strength is observed with lower values. These changes waste particles of size of 0.85 mm. As it is appreciated, a
are attributed to the ionizing energy, which produces concrete homogeneous surface for control concrete (without parti-
with higher ductility; that is, the deformation occurs in a cles) is observed (Figure 7(a)) which presents changes when
sustainable way before reaching the breaking point. particles are added. Concrete with particles of 0.85 mm
has the highest value of flexural strain values, which can
3.4. Flexural Strain at Yield Point. In the case of flexural be related to a greater contact area between the particles
strain values, significant changes were observed, as follows: and the concrete matrix; thus the stress transfer is greater;
with respect to particle concentrations, flexural strain value moreover homogenous surface and good distribution of the
decreases when adding waste Tetra Pak particles; the highest particles are observed (Figure 7(b)), while for higher particle
values were obtained for 1% or 2% of particle concentrations concentrations the values decrease and they are attributed
(Figure 6). With respect to particle sizes, (a) improvements
up to 8% on the values were obtained when lowest size
to irregular distributions of particles (Figures 7(c) and
7(d)). 51
International Journal of Polymer Science 7
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, pp. 1299– [29] S. S. Cota, V. Vasconcelos, M. Senne Jr., L. L. Carvalho, D.
1308, Ancona, Italy, June 2010. B. Rezende, and R. F. Correa, “Changes in mechanical prop-
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[16] J. M. L. dos Reis, “Effect of textile waste on the mechanical
properties of polymer concrete,” Materials Research, vol. 12, no.
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[17] Y. Bai, Z. Wang, and L. Feng, “Chemical recycling of carbon
fibers reinforced epoxy resin composites in oxygen in super-
critical water,” Materials and Design, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 999–1002,
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[18] J. M. Henshaw, “Recycling and disposal of polymer-matrix
composites,” in ASM Handbook, Volume 21: Composites, D. B.
Miracle and S. L. Donaldson, Eds., pp. 1006–1012, ASM Inter-
national, 2001.
[19] V. Goodship, Management, Recycling and Reuse of Waste Com-
posites, WP, CRC Press, Cambridge, UK, 2010.
[20] S. Job, “Composite recycling—summary of recent research and
development,” Materials KTN Report, 2010.
[21] M. Blazsó, “Pyrolysis for recycling waste composites,” in Man-
agement Recycling and Reuse of Waste Composites, V. Goodship,
Ed., pp. 102–121, WP, CRC Press, Cambridge, UK, 2010.
[22] K. S. Rebeiz, S. P. Serhal, and D. W. Fowler, “Structural behavior
of polymer concrete beams using recycled plastic,” Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 150–165, 1994.
[23] G. Martı́nez-Barrera, C. Menchaca-Campos, C. E. Barrera-
Dı́az, and L. I. Avila-Cordoba, “Recent developments in poly-
mer recycling,” in Gamma Rays: Technology, Applications and
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[24] A. A. Al-Manaseer and T. R. Dalal, “Concrete containing plastic
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49–51, 1971. 53
3.1.2 Artículo 2 (enviado).
54
Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for
Construction & Building Materials
Manuscript Draft
Manuscript Number:
56
Cover Letter
We send you our manuscript “Waste Tetra Pak particles from beverage containers as
reinforcements in polymer concrete: effect of gamma irradiation as an interfacial coupling
factor” to be considered for possible publication in Construction and Building Materials.
The article is related with the effects of waste Tetra Pak particles and gamma irradiation on
compressive and flexural properties of polymer concrete. As we know polymer concrete
have two important characteristics, toughness and ductility, the last one with limitations
and in consequence limited uses in load-bearing applications. Thus improvements are
necessary for specific applications. One novel alternative is use waste Tetra Pak particles
for ductility improvement and gamma irradiation for structural modifications. The use of
waste Tetra Pak particles, promotes environmental preservation and replacement the
ordinary synthetic fibers. The results show improvement on the mechanical deformation
when adding waste Tetra Pak particles. Moreover, such mechanical features are increasing
when irradiating polymer concrete at 100 kGy.
We consider that the results of this research represent an important advance in Civil
Engineering research and could contributing to open an important route for improvement
of mechanical properties of Construction Materials by using gamma radiation.
We hope that our paper could be considered for this important journal.
Yours Truly
57
Highlights
Research Highlights
Polymer concrete with waste Tetra Pak from beverage containers was elaborated
The effects of gamma radiation on compressive and flexural properties were studied
We show higher compressive and flexural deformation than plain polymer concrete
The higher gamma dose (100 kGy) provides the highest compressive strength
58
*Manuscript
Click here to download Manuscript: martinez polymer concrete.docx Click here to view linked References
3 factor
*
5 Miguel Martínez-López a, Gonzalo Martínez-Barrera b , Carlos Barrera-Díaz c,
8
a
9 Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón
11
b
12 Laboratorio de Investigación y Desarrollo de Materiales Avanzados (LIDMA),
15 gonzomartinez02@yahoo.com.mx
16
c
17 Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable UAEM-UNAM.
20 cbd0044@yahoo.com
21
59
d
22 Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares, Carretera México-Toluca S/N,
24 fernando.urena@inin.gob.mx
25
d
26 Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Laboratory – LMTA, Mechanical Engineering
29
30
31
33
34
35 Abstract
36
37 In this work, composites based on polyester resin and silica sand were elaborated.
38 Partial substitution of silica sand by waste Tetra Pak particles from discarded
40 known, Tetra Pak packaging have six layers: four of polyethylene, one of cellulose
41 and one of aluminum. Modified composites were irradiated with gamma rays at
42 doses from 100 to 500 kGy in order to improve the mechanical properties of
43 composites through a better interfacial coupling between the matrix and Tetra Pak
60
46 Tetra Pak particles and irradiation dose of 100 kGy were used. Higher compressive
47 and flexural deformation was also observed (until 34% higher); therefore a ductile
48 material was obtained, which is not common for these kinds of composites. By
49 increasing the irradiation dose to 200 kGy and concentration higher than 2% of
51 considerably.
52
55
56 1. Introduction
57
59 materials having a discrete and recognizable interface between them. They consist
61 matrix are: a) to determine the physical and chemical properties; b) transmit loads
62 to the reinforcement; and c) protect and provide cohesion. Despite the existence of
64 always feasible given that its manufacture is generally difficult and expensive [1, 2].
65
66 As is well known, one of the most important composites is cement concrete, which
67 have several advantages. However, also have some drawbacks such as, its low
69 temperature variations. For solving these problems, polymer materials have been
3
61
70 added to concrete to improve its mechanical properties. Polymer concrete is a
73
76 ratio; such reinforcements are used to increase the rigidity, abrasion resistance,
79 obtained from discarded Tetra Pak beverage containers, which are made with
81 these materials is based on mechanical milling and chemical attack, from which is
83
88 (PEAL) obtained from post-consumer aseptic packaging, the reported results show
92 on the flexural modulus are obtained when adding 60 wt% of sawdust and rice
96 by injection molding using recycled Tetra Pak packaging materials and high-
98 and melamine (MEL) as intumescent flame retardants (FRs). The results show that
99 the incorporation of APP, APP/MEL into composites promoted char formation and
100 improvement on the thermal stability. With APP/MEL ratios less than 3, tensile
101 strength, combustion behavior and flame retardancy are improved. Nevertheless,
102 diminishing on mechanical properties is observed when adding more than 30 wt%
104
106 using recycled Tetra Pak materials and iron fibers. EMI shielding effectiveness
107 (SE) and volume resistivity (VR) was investigated in terms of the concentration,
108 length and number of iron fibers into the matrix. The results indicated that SE
109 increases with the increment of the concentration and length of the fibers, however
110 VR shows an opposite behavior. The boards had excellent EMI shielding
111 performance in two ranges (9000 Hz–200 MHz) and (600–1500 MHz), and were
112 proposed for broad applications, including packaging and construction due to their
114
115 Properties of composites depend on the interface between the components. If the
116 interface is weak, the load transfer from the matrix to the fiber (or particles) will not
117 be efficient and/or be the matrix ends loads supporting (and fail, since it is not very
5
63
118 resistant), or produce voids between the matrix and fibers, which produce rupture.
119 Gamma irradiation has proved to be an adequate tool for modifications of the
123
125 polymer for wire insulation, the development of heat shrinkable tubing and film, and
126 the curing of resins used in coating applications. Moreover, gamma irradiation is
127 used as polymerization agent for developing fiber reinforced composite materials,
130 room temperature, and handling on specific applied doses, when comparing with a
132
133 Applying gamma irradiation to polyester resin produce several effects, for example
134 the glass transition temperature, Tg, increases when increasing irradiation dose.
136 higher in presence of nitrogen than those obtained in presence of oxygen. Such
137 thermal behaviors are related with mechanical features, in particular those for
138 compressive strength where the values increment when irradiation dose is
140
6
64
141 In general, the exposure of LDPE to high-energy irradiation as gamma rays, result
142 in the following changes: evolution of hydrogen and cross-linking of its linear
143 chains. Which give features of thermoplastic due to its reticulated. This modified
145 that does not flow at the melting temperature. In the case of the cellulose polymer,
146 degradation begins at 31 kGy and the cross-linking of polymer chains occurs at
148
150 composite components through using gamma irradiation have been conducted. In
153 Using gamma irradiation, by which cross-linking of polymer chains and more fiber-
154 matrix interactions are produced, can circumvent such treatment. The observed
157
158 Thermal degradation of Tetra Pak panel boards (TPPB) under inert atmosphere
159 was studied. The results show thermal degradation in the range of 200oC to 400oC
160 for paper layer, the other degradation step occurs between 400oC and 461oC
161 corresponding to degradation of remaining paper and LDPE. The residue consists
162 of char and aluminum foil after the thermal degradation [19]. In other study; DSC,
163 DTA, and TG techniques were used for analyzing cellulose treated and untreated
164 with flame-retardants. The results show that at 300oC initiates cellulose
7
65
165 degradation. Moreover, similar results were observed for microcrystalline cellulose
167 copolymer films were cross-linked by radiation and their thermal properties were
170 irradiation such blends lowered its main endothermic peak because the cross-
172 In this research, particles from wasted Tetra Pak beverage containers were used
174 gamma irradiation was used for increasing of mechanical properties of the polymer
176 polymer concrete and Tetra Pak particles caused by the irradiation process.
177
179
181
182 Polymer concrete specimens (40x40x60 mm) were made with unsaturated
183 polyester resin, silica sand and particles from wasted Tetra Pak beverage
184 containers. The resin (orthophthalic) was provided by Reichhold Company and
185 marketed under the name Polylite 32493-00TM. Silica sand (available from
186 GOSATM) with uniform granulometry had an average diameter of 245 μm. As
187 catalysts for curing resin methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) was used.
8
66
188
189 Discarded Tetra Pak beverage containers were washed to remove impurities, then
190 dried to remove moisture, and finally subjected to a grinding process to achieve
192
193
194
196
197 Polymer concrete specimens were elaborated according to the Table 1. There
198 were two kinds of polymer concrete: Type I or control (without Tetra Pak particles
199 and not-irradiated), and Type II (with particles and not-irradiated or irradiated).
200
201 The Tetra Pak particles partially replaced the silica sand concentration (1, 2, 4 and
202 6 wt%), while the resin concentration remained constant. Six specimens of each
203 formulation were elaborated. Curing of polymer concrete specimens was carried
205
PC 20 80 0
PC-1 20 79 1
67
PC-2 20 78 2
PC-4 20 76 4
PC-6 20 74 6
207
209
210 Polymer concrete specimens were irradiated at different dose (from 100 to 500
211 kGy) in an industrial irradiator JS-6500 that works with cobalt 60 pencils (60Co) of
212 5.2 years of life in average, located at National Institute of Nuclear Research
214
216
217 After the irradiating process, polymer concrete specimens were subjected to
218 compressive and bending test in a ControlsTM Universal Testing Machine with a
219 load cell of 30 tons. The compressive testing at a loading rate of 1.25 mm/min was
220 done, following the UNE 83821:1992 test standard. While the flexural testing was
222 tests. Load-displacement curves and the maximum load for the collapse bending
224
226
10
68
227 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments were carried out in Perkin
228 Elmer DSC-6 equipment for all Tetra Pak particle samples to locate the phase
229 transitions. All tests were conducted under nitrogen gas from 30°C up to 450°C at
230 the heating rate of 10°C/min. While the thermal stability was studied using a Perkin
231 Elmer TGA 7 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). It was covered the range from
232 30°C to 450°C at the heating rate of 10°C/min under nitrogen gas.
233
234
236
238
239 The results for the two types of polymer concrete were analyzed in terms of two
240 parameters: Tetra Pak particles concentration, and gamma irradiation dose.
241
242 Figure 1 shows the compressive strength values of polymer concrete. For concrete
243 Type I (control: without particles and not-irradiated), compressive strength value
244 was 90 MPa. While for concrete Type II (with particles and not-irradiated or
246 concentration increase. As it observed in Figure 1, some values are higher than
247 that of the control polymer concrete, while others are lower than it. For the a better
248 understanding of the graphic a dashed line was added for showing higher and
250
11
69
251 Higher compressive strength values are for polymer concrete with 1% or 2% of
252 Tetra Pak particles; Moreover, in terms of irradiation dose it can see two well-
253 defined stages: I) Compressive strength values increase at 100 kGy; II) for higher
255
256 Fig. 1. Compressive strength values for polymer concrete specimens, in terms of
258
259 The highest value is obtained for polymer concrete with 1% of particles and
260 irradiated at 100 kGy, this value represents an improvement of 14% respect to
261 control polymer concrete. Such increment is due to the gamma radiation effects on
263
12
70
264 However, compressive strength values significantly decrease by adding higher
265 concentrations of particles and when higher doses of irradiation are applied. The
266 lowest value is obtained for polymer concrete with 6% of irradiated particles at 400
267 kGy it means 33% lower. Such diminution can be attributed to the low stress
268 transfer between polymer concrete and the Tetra Pak particles, which is
269 consequence of the poor interaction and adhesion between the two hydrophobic
270 materials: polyester resin (matrix) and cellulose (from Tetra Pak packages). As it is
271 observed in Figure 2 where Tetra Pak particles are non-homogeneous disperses,
272 some are seen with the flat side facing up or embedded into the matrix.
273
274
275
276
277 Fig. 2. a) Tetra Pak particles sizes and b) dispersion of Tetra Pak particles in
279 Figure 3 shows the flexural strength values of polymer concrete. For control
280 polymer concrete the value was 23 MPa. A general behavior is observed: by
281 increasing the particle concentration, the flexural strength gradually decreases. In
13
71
282 the case of irradiated concretes, improvements on the values occur when
283 irradiating at 100 kGy; while for higher applied dose the values gradually diminish.
284 The highest flexural strength value is obtained for concrete with 1 wt% of particles
285 irradiated at 100 kGy; this is 13% higher than that of the control polymer concrete.
286
287 However, the lowest flexural strength value is obtained with highest particle
288 concentration (6 wt%) and highest irradiation dose (500 kGy); such value is 27%
290
291
292 Fig. 3. Flexural strength values for polymer concrete specimens, in terms of
294
14
72
295 Figure 4 shows the modulus of elasticity of polymer concrete. A general rule is
296 noted: modulus of elasticity gradually diminishes when adding more concentration
297 of Tetra Pak particles. In the case of gamma irradiation, for all polymer concretes a
298 maximum value is found at 100 kGy and for higher doses the values gradually
299 decrease.
300
301 The modulus of elasticity of control polymer concrete is 32 GPa. As it was noted
302 before a dashed line was collocated for to identify higher or lower values than that
303 of control concrete. Only some polymer concrete specimens have higher values
304 than that of control, these are concretes with 1wt% or 2% of particles and irradiated
305 at 100 kGy and 200 kGy. The highest modulus of elasticity was 34 GPa
306 corresponding to polymer concrete with 1% of particles and irradiated at 100 kGy,
307 such value is 6% higher respect to control concrete value; cross-linking of polymer
308 chains into the resin after irradiating causes this increment.
309
310 Detrimental results of the modulus of elasticity are observed for polymer concrete
311 with higher concentration of particles and irradiated at higher doses, for instance, 6
312 wt% of particles and 500 kGy of dose. The lowest value is 23% minor than that of
313 control concrete. Such decrease can be attributed to the higher Tetra Pak particles
314 concentration; then sand/Tetra Pak ratio is crucial in achieving the degree of
315 elasticity.
316
15
73
317
320
321
322 Thermal DSC curves of not-irradiated and irradiated Tetra Pak particles are shown
326 with relatively long side chains and low crystallinity; so reticulation occurs
328
16
74
329 According to the irradiation dose, the heat flow diminishes at 100 kGy, but for
330 higher doses it increases, i.e. more energy is required to produce physical or
331 chemical changes in polyethylene, and to reach the melting point (104oC), when
332 radiation dose increases. These changes may be related to the ductility of the
333 composite: at higher doses the crystallinity is lower, so that the modulus of
335 shows a maximum value at 100 kGy and for higher doses the values gradually
336 decrease. At this dose, 100 kGy, is located the lowest Tm endothermic peak.
337
338 Following the thermal behavior, the major degrading process (exothermic peaks)
339 occurred between 265oC and 360oC; through changes in crystallinity produced by
340 gamma radiation. Degradation of the cellulose contained in the Tetra Pak particles
341 occurs in this region. As it is known cellulose is a highly hydrophilic polymer; hence
342 water is present on its surface most of the time. Not-irradiated cellulose lost most
343 of its mass, when occurs its maximum thermal degradation at 356oC. For certain
344 natural fibers decomposition peaks for thermal degradation has been observed, at
346
347 After irradiating, improvement on the degradation temperature is observed for each
348 irradiation dose; shifting to lower temperatures between 327oC and 356oC, which
349 means up to 9% lower when applying 500 kGy. The change in decomposition
350 temperature corresponds to cellulose that had been successfully modified through
17
75
352
353
354 Fig. 5. DSC thermograms of not-irradiated and irradiated waste Tetra Pak particles.
355
356
358 polymer concretes. For all of them the deformation values diminish when adding
359 more concentration of particles. Nevertheless, in the case of irradiation, two well-
360 define stages are noticed: I) the values gradually increase up to a dose of 400 kGy;
361 and II) after this point, for higher doses the values diminish.
362
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76
363 The control concrete shows a value of 0.036 mm/mm, while the highest value of
364 0.046 mm/mm, which means an improvement of 27% respect to the value of
365 control concrete. The highest value is located for concrete with 1 wt% of particles
367
368 Thus, by applying ionizing radiation is possible to produce concrete with higher
369 ductility, i.e. with higher deformation. A combination of the irradiation effects at 400
370 kGy on the polymers involved: polyester resin (matrix), cellulose and low-density
371 polyethylene (from Tetra Pak beverage packages) cause higher deformation. As it
372 is know at high dose each involved polymer have different behavior against
374 cross-linked and the polyester resin increases its degree of polymerization; such
375 combining behaviors modify the deformation and resistance of the composites.
376
19
77
377
378 Fig. 6.Compressive strain at yield point of polymer concrete in terms of irradiation
380
381
382
383 As it is know Tetra Pak beverage containers have six layers arranged as it is
384 shown in Figure 7. After irradiating process, surface changes on the Tetra Pak
385 particles are observed, mainly on the cellulose and polyethylene materials, both
386 materials located in the inner or outer layers of the Tetra Pak beverage containers,
387 as it is shown in Figure 7. For non-irradiated Tetra Pak particles, a less rough
388 surface is observed when comparing with that of 400 kGy of irradiation. On the
20
78
389 surface of the irradiated particles further changes are observed, mainly "holes"
391
392 Such morphological changes on the Tetra Pak particles can be related with the
394 due to radiation, a better physical adhesion between the particles and the polymer
395 matrix is obtained, and b) mechanical attachment may occur between “holes” on
397
398
399 a) b)
400
401 Figure 7.a) Tetra Pak layers arrangement, and b) SEM images of not-irradiated
403
404 Flexural strain values are shown in Figure 8. They show a very interesting
405 behavior, because the flexural deformation values increase when the radiation
408
21
79
409 A few values are located below to the control concrete value. It means that gamma
410 radiation is effective for improve the flexural deformation. The highest value is for
411 concrete with 1 wt% of particles and irradiated at 500 kGy; it means 34% of
412 improvement.
413
414
415
416 Fig. 8. Flexural strain at yield point for polymer concrete specimens, in terms of
418
419 4. Conclusions
420
22
80
421 In this work, the effects of the concentration of Tetra Pak particles as mechanical
423 coupling in polyester based composite were evaluated. The results show highest
424 values for compressive and flexural strength as well as modulus of elasticity when
425 1 wt% of Tetra Pak particle is added. The deformation due to compression and
426 bending increased substantially when the composite is irradiated at high doses: a)
427 in compression, the maximum deformation occurs at 400 kGy (26% higher than the
428 control concrete) and b) the greatest deformation in flexion are presented when the
429 composite is irradiated at 500 kGy (36% higher than the control concrete). This is
430 attributed to the effect of gamma radiation on polyethylene, cellulose and polyester
431 matrix (cross-linking and degradation); this modified the ductility of the composite
432 material.
433
434
435 Acknowledgements
436
437 Financial support of the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico (UAEM),
439 National Council for Science and Technology of México (CONACYT) for the
440 scholarship for one of the authors (Miguel Martínez-López); and Environmental
442
443
444 References
23
81
445
446 [1] Bai Y, Wang Z, Feng L. Chemical recycling of carbon fibres reinforced epoxy
447 resin composites in oxygen in supercritical water. Materials and Design 2010; 31,
448 999–1002.
449 [2] Olmos D, González-Benito J. Composites formed by glass fibers and PS-
450 modified epoxy matrix. Influence of the glass fibers surface on the morphologies
453 [3] Aggarwal V, Gupta SM, Sachdeva SN. High volume fly ash concrete: a green
455 [4] Rahman MM, Islam MA, Ahmed M, Salam MA. Recycled Polymer Materials as
456 Aggregates for Concrete and Blocks. Journal of Chemical Engineering 2012; 27:
457 53-7.
458 [5] Reis JML. Effect of textile waste on the mechanical properties of polymer
460 [6] Rahman M., Islam M., Ahmed M. Recycling of waste polymeric materials as a
462 Chemical, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Penang, Malaysia (2012), p. 99-
463 102.
464 [7] Hidalgo M. Manufacturing rigid board by packaging waste containing aluminum
465 and polyethylene. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 2011; 70: 232-4.
24
82
466 [8] Rahamin H, Madhoushi M, Tabarsa T, Firuzabad MRD. Investigation on
467 feasibility of manufacturing “Carton board” from recycled beverage carton (Tetra
468 Pak containers) without using resin. World Science Journal 2013; 1: 170-9.
470 Flame retardancy and mechanical properties of thermal plastic composite panels
471 made from Tetra Pak waste and high-density polyethylene. Polymer Composites
474 interference shielding boards produced using Tetra Paks waste and iron fiber.
475 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 2015; 17: 391-8.
476 [11] Cota SS, Vasconcelos V, Senne Jr. M, Carvalho LL, Rezende DV, Côrrea RF.
478 polyethylene (HDPE). Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering 2007; 24: 259-
479 265.
480 [12] Nechifor CD, Dorohoi DO, Ciobanu C. The influence of gamma radiations on
483 [13] Mubarak AK, Haque N, Abdullah AK, Alam NM, Abedin MZ, Jute Reinforced
25
83
486 [14] Madani M. Structure, optical and thermal decomposition characters of LDPE
492 [16] Parashar P, Datt SC. Effect of gamma-ray irradiation on the mechanical
494 [17] Young CN, Jeong K, Phil HK. Mechanical Properties of LDPE/Ethylene-1-
497 [18] Ferreira LM, Leal JP, Casimiro MH, Cruz C, Lancastre JJH, Falcao AN.
499 gamma irradiation. Radiation Physics and Chemistry 2012; 94: 31-5.
500 [19] AyselK F, Evren T, Nural Y, Saip NK, Sabriye PK. Thermal degradation
501 characteristic of Tetra Pak panel boards under inert atmosphere. Korean Journal of
503 [20] Toshimi H, Tetsuya N. DSC, DTA, and TG of cellulose untreated and treated
26
84
505 [21] Katharina MP, Stephen WH. Characterization of the thermal properties of
508
27
85
3.1.3 Artículo 3 (Publicado).
86
Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Up to now the failure load assessment of cracked polymer mortar plates is still not fully
Received 20 April 2015 understood, especially when complex fracture modes are involved. The present paper is
Received in revised form 7 January 2016 concerned with the failure analysis of cracked polymer mortar plates in combined mode
Accepted 9 January 2016
I and II. The Brazilian disk, a classic mixed mode fracture test specimen, was adopted for
Available online 12 January 2016
the experimental characterisation of the crack initiation. Digital Image Correlation (DIC)
method was used to obtain the full-field displacement close to the crack tip and a failure
Keywords:
criterion is proposed with a good correlation with the experimental results.
Polymer mortar
Mixed mode fracture
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Brazilian disc test
Failure criterion
1. Introduction
Researchers worldwide are given their attention not only to create different materials and new design methodologies, but
also to the lifetime extension of structures that are being used for several years. Polymer mortar (PM) is a cementless com-
posite, made of inorganic aggregates bonded together by a polymeric binder, in this epoxy resin, which substitutes the
cement. The composition of PM is determined by its applications, and its strength is influenced by the ratio of aggregate
to resin content [1–3]. Chemical and corrosion resistance, ease of placement, long durability, low permeability, high damping
and dynamic and thermal stability are some of the advantages that make these polymer composites suitable for precast com-
ponents, bridge deck overlays, artificial marbles, repair materials for concrete structures and machine tool basements [4–14].
The Brazilian disc test (BDT), introduced by Carneiro [15,16] and Akazawa [17], consists of a diametral compression of a
cylinder as a substitute of the direct tension test. BDT is nowadays an alternative tool for an easy determination of the critical
stress intensity factor (SIF), especially for brittle geomaterials. This is achieved by using the centrally cracked Brazilian disc
configuration proposed by Awaji and Sato [18]. The main advantage of this configuration (beyond the relatively simple
experimental procedure) is that any combination of mode-I and mode-II loading types can be achieved by an appropriate
choice of the crack inclination angle h, (with respect to the loading direction) and the relative crack length, l/a (with respect
to the disc radius, a) (Fig. 1) [19]. In [20] an analysis is made of the cracked Brazilian disk test. Explicit results are given for
the stress intensity factors of a crack aligned in any direction to the applied load. At certain angles it is found that crack
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2016.01.007
0013-7944/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151 141
Nomenclature
a disk radius
a material constant
b material constant
F compressive force applied to the disk
F prop force at the onset of crack propagation for a given crack angle h
Ko material constant
KI stress intensity factor in mode I
bI
K normalised stress intensity factor in mode I
K Ic critical value of the stress intensity factors in mode I
K prop
I mode I stress intensity factor at the onset of crack propagation
K II stress intensity factor in mode II
b II
K normalised stress intensity factor in mode II
K prop
II mode II stress intensity factor at the onset of crack propagation
l half of the crack length
n unit outward normal vector
NI auxiliary variable
NII auxiliary variable
S1 fracture parameter
S2 fracture parameter
T1 fracture parameter
T2 fracture parameter
t stress vector
tn normal component of the stress vector
h crack angle
w disk thickness
r stress tensor
rxx normal stress (in the direction perpendicular to the external force)
ryy normal stress (in the direction of the external force)
rxy shear stress
closure should occur. Aliha and Ayatollahi [21] studied the mixed-mode fracture properties of cement mortar where a mod-
ified maximum tangent stress (MTS) criterion is proposed. Recently Dong et al. [22] also introduced a solution for a centrally
cracked Brazilian disc under uniform radial pressure again in the form of infinite series.
Polymer mortars, with reasonable fractions of sand, have a quasi-brittle behaviour [23]. Complex models, including
within the continuum damage approach can be used to study crack initiation and propagation in this kind of material
([24–26], for instance). Nevertheless, for low loading rates and quasi-brittle behaviour, some concepts of the Linear Fracture
Mechanics can be still used as a simplified tool to predict crack initiation. In fact, several studies concerning the mode I frac-
ture properties of polymer mortars/concrete can be found in the literature [27–31]. However, it is important to observe that
the Brazilian disk test may inadequate results if unilateral contact and friction between the crack lips are neglected, depend-
ing on the loading and crack orientation.
The goal of the present study is to extend the study performed in [23] to propose a simple mixed mode fracture criterion
(restricted to combined mode I and II) for brittle polymer mortar plates using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) method and
the Brazilian disk test. It is an easy-to-implement procedure to identify not only the fracture properties, but also the elastic
properties of arbitrary polymer mortars. Only a few tests using a standard Brazilian disk specimen with cracks at different
angles are necessary to obtain all parameters necessary for the use of the proposed mixed mode criterion.
2.1. Materials
The polymer mortar considered in the present study was obtained by mixing in a planetary mixer for 5 min fresh foundry
sand and epoxy resin. The aggregate used is a quartz foundry sand with a rather uniform particle size; the particles had an
average diameter of 245 lm. The sand specific gravity is 2.65 g cm3 [32] and fineness modulus of 2.5 [33]. The aggregate
content was 88%. Before being added to the polymeric resin the foundry sand was dried to reduce moisture content.
The epoxy resin system was based on a diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A and an aliphatic amine hardener. This system has
low viscosity, and is processed with a maximum mix ratio to the hardener of 4:1. Epoxy polymer resin thermal and mechan-
ical properties are provided in Table 1.
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142 M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151
The resin content was 12% by weight and no filler was added in formulations.
Previous studies carried out in [28], considering an extensive experimental program, allowed an optimisation of mortar
formulations that are now being used in the present work.
Polymer mortar mixture was cast in a cylindrical steel mould with the nominal dimension of 80 mm in diameter and
20 mm in thickness. During cast, a thin metal shim with 25 mm wide by 2 mm thick was inserted to create a single centre
crack. After fully cured, polymer mortar specimens were demoulded and the metal shim removed.
2.2. Methods
The disk specimen was loaded at a constant crosshead speed, 0.5 mm/min, using a universal testing machine, Shimadzu
AG-X 100, according to Figs. 1 and 2. Different crack angles have been considered with three tests per crack angle. The crack
angles tested were 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90.
Noting w the disk thickness, 2a the diameter and 2l the crack length and F the compression force, the stress intensity fac-
tors are given by the following expressions [20].
F pffi F pffi
K I ¼ pffiffiffiffi l NI and K II ¼ pffiffiffiffi l NII ð1Þ
paw paw
with
" � �2 #
2 l 2
NI ¼ ð1 � 4ðsinðhÞÞ Þ T 1 þ T 2 8ðsinðhÞÞ ð2Þ
a
" � �2 #
l
N II ¼ 2 sinð2hÞ S1 þ S2 ð8ðcosðhÞÞ2 � 5Þ ð3Þ
a
In the present case, the value of l=a � 0:3. Thus, from Ref. [1], the associated parameters were selected: T1 = 1.13;
T2 = 0.53; S1 = 1.09 and S2 = 0.52.
The values of the stress intensity factors at the onset of crack propagation K prop
I and K prop
II were obtained measuring exper-
imentally the rupture force F prop (the force at the onset of crack propagation) for a given angle h and using expressions (1)–(3)
F prop pffi F prop pffi
K prop
I ¼ pffiffiffiffi l NI and K prop
II ¼ pffiffiffiffi l NII ð4Þ
paw paw
K prop
I , K prop
II and F prop are functions of the crack angle h. The critical value of the stress intensity factor in pure mode I (K Ic ) coin-
cides with the value of K prop I when h ¼ 0.
It is study, the expressions proposed by Atkinson et al. [20] were used, but the explicit expressions of the stress intensity
factors proposed in [22] could also have been used.
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M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151 143
Table 1
Properties of the epoxy resin.
Property Epoxy
Viscosity at 250C l (cP) 12,000–13,000
Density q (g/cm3) 1.16
Heat distortion temperature HDT (C) 100
Modulus of elasticity E (GPa) 5.0
Flexural strength (MPa) 60
Tensile strength (MPa) 73
Maximum elongation (%) 4
During this investigation, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique was used to obtain the deformation field on the
specimen surface. Digital Image Correlation is an optical–numerical full-field surface displacement measurement method
([22,34,35], for instance). This technique relies on the computer vision approach to extract the whole-field displacement
data, that is, by comparing the features in a pair of digital images of a specimen surface before and after deformation.
To apply the DIC technique, on the surface of the disk specimen, a random speckle pattern was generated by first spraying
a very thin layer of black paint and then spraying black paint on top of the white background. In all cases it is necessary a CCD
camera set perpendicularly to the specimen and a computer for capturing and processing the images. All images were
acquired using a CCD camera (Sony XCD-SX910) with a frame rate of one image per second and 1376 1024 pixel resolu-
tion. The system calibration was carried out considering a value of scale factor equal to 16.2 pixel/mm.
The procedure for estimating displacement fields requires two images (non-load and load). The size of the measurement
field was 1280 960 pixels and the reference and target subsets equal to 31 31 and 71 71 pixels, respectively, were
selected as input data in DIC program. The images of the undeformed and deformed specimen were captured and processed
using DIC program. The procedure was conducted in quasi-static conditions at room temperature. In this condition, there are
no effects of machine vibrations.
3.1. Analysis of the stress intensity factors and domain of validity of the BDT
A failure criterion to define when a crack will start propagating in Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics should be size inde-
pendent (i.e., if it is general, it must be independent of the size of the specimen used to identify the constants that appear in
the criterion). However, many experimental studies observe a size effect on mixed mode crack propagation criterion [36,37].
These experimental observations can be explained in some cases: (i) The theory is conceived for brittle materials. Eventually,
the material may undergo some minor irreversible deformation and the behaviour is not exactly brittle; (ii) The crack is
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144 M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151
artificially made without performing fatigue pre-cracking and, hence, the prepared notch do not behave as a sharp crack; (iii)
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics does not account for unilateral contact and friction of the crack lips.
The last two items are quite important. In some situations, notch stress intensity factors (NSIF) can probably provide more
accurate results in laboratory tests, mainly for concretes and geomaterials [38–40]. In the case of the Brazilian disk test, there
is always a contact between the crack lips for higher angles of the crack and the problem became size dependent. This is the
main focus of the present study.
The classical solutions of Linear Elasticity for the stress and displacement fields in the neighbourhood of a crack tip in
pure mode I, II or II can be obtained independently. The solution for the stress and displacement fields in a combined mode
situation is obtained simply by adding these fields (since the problem is linear [41]). However, due the unilateral nature of
mode I, the Westergaard́s solution is only valid when the crack is opening (see Fig. 3). When contact and friction occurs (the
Mode I singularity is not fully active) the classical Westergaard́s solution for a crack in mode I is not valid and the problem
became strongly nonlinear. The stress field is dependent of the geometry of the body, of the external loading and of the
boundary conditions. When this fact is not accounted, inconsistent results are obtained – such as a negative stress intensity
factor in mode I.
Some papers concerned with proposing failure criteria for combined mode I and II based on the Brazilian disk test do not
account for this issue. Therefore, the obtained criteria may be size dependent. Since unilateral contact and friction are not
taken into account, at the point of the crack closure, Eqs. (1)–(4) are no longer valid (negative values of the stress intensity
factors can be obtained). As is shown in this section, closure always occurs for higher angles, but this value may depend on
the specimen geometry. In general, as a practical rule, the angle h must not be greater than 25. Although the force versus
displacement curve seems very similar for different crack angles (see Fig. 4), the forces at the onset of crack propagation are
quite different. Fig. 5 presents the variation of F prop with the crack angle h.
As observed previously, for higher values of the crack angle h, expressions (4) give rise to negative values of K I . Fig. 6 pre-
sents the stress intensity factors at the onset of crack propagation as a function of h, using Eq. (4). The angle beyond which
the stress intensity factor is negative (which correspond to the point where contact and friction between the crack lips can-
not be neglected), depends on the specimen geometry, but generally it is somewhere between 25 and 30.
A classical and simple way to estimate an upper limit for this angle h beyond which the crack will close is to assume that
the stress field is not very affected by the crack and to compute the normal component t n of the stress vector at the centre of
the crack. If t n > 0, the crack tends to open and if t n < 0 it tends to close (see Fig. 7).
Using a Cartesian system of coordinates fixed at the disk centre, the stress field for a homogeneous disk under diametral
compression considering a linear elastic behaviour is given by [42]
0 1
2F B ða � yÞx2 ða þ yÞx2 1C
rxx ¼� @� �2 þ � �2 � A ð5Þ
pw x2 þ ða � yÞ2 x þ ða þ yÞ
2 2 2a
0 1
2F B ða � yÞ3 ða þ yÞ3 1C
ryy ¼ � @� �2 þ � A ð6Þ
pw x2 þ ða � yÞ2 ðx2 þ ða þ yÞ2 Þ
2 2a
0 1
2F B ða � yÞ2 x ða þ yÞ2 x C
rxy ¼ @� �2 � � �2 A ð7Þ
pw x2 þ ða � yÞ2 x2 þ ða þ yÞ2
Using Eqs. (5) and (6) the stress components at the centre of the disk are
2P 3P
rxx ¼ ; ryy ¼ � ; rxy ¼ 0 ð8Þ
paw paw
Considering the unit outward normal to one of the faces of the crack as
F 2
tn ¼ ðr nÞ � n ¼ ½ðcosðhÞÞ2 � 3ðsinðhÞÞ � ð10Þ
paw
It is possible to verify that t n is positive (consequently, the crack tends to open) for h < 30� and negative for 30� < h < 90�
2
(the crack tends to close). Fig. 8 shows the behaviour of the function UðhÞ ¼ ½ðcosðhÞÞ2 � 3ðsinðhÞÞ � that appears in Eq. (10). Of
course, this is an upper bound and contact may occur for lower able values. Eqs. (1)–(4) are valid if K I P 0 (the limit angle in
a real cracked disk depends on the ratio l=a).
Figs. 9 and 10 present the close to the crack tip full-field displacement at the onset of rupture for different crack angles
using Digital Image Correlation method. It can be verified that the crack tends to close for higher values of the angle h. The
91
M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151 145
Fig. 3. Modes of loading that can be applied to a crack. Unilateral nature of mode I.
crack initiation angle can be analysed using Fig. 10 and different and well known criteria (such as the maximum hoop stress
criterion [43] and the maximum strain energy release rate criterion [44]), but this is not the goal of the present paper, since,
for h > 25 , expressions (1)–(4) are no longer valid because contact and friction must be taken into account. It is possible to
propose corrections on these expressions (see [20], for instance), but, as it is shown in the next section, a few Brazilian disk
tests with crack angles up to 25 are sufficient to establish a coherent fracture criterion in mixed mode I and II.
The goal of this section is to propose a simple but general mixed mode failure criterion for this particular polymer mortar.
The following is proposed:
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146 M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151
Fig. 6. Stress intensity factors at the onset of crack propagation as a function of h, using Eq. (4).
Fig. 7. Normal component tn of the stress vector at the centre of the crack.
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M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151 147
Fig. 9. Close to the crack tip full-field displacement at the onset of rupture.
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148 M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151
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M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151 149
Table 2
Average experimental results for the polymer mortar.
Fig. 12. Comparison between experimental results and criterion prediction for the polymer concrete.
96
150 M. Martínez-López et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 154 (2016) 140–151
4. Conclusion
The present paper aims at analysing the mixed mode fracture in a particular polymer mortar using the Brazilian disc test.
Most polymer mortars with a reasonable volume of sand present a quasi-brittle behaviour, and the concepts of classical lin-
ear fracture mechanics may still be used.
In this case, the Brazilian disk test can be a valuable tool to study experimentally the fracture behaviour, but care must be
taken with the maximum allowable crack angle in order to avoid the unilateral contact and friction between the crack lips.
Contact always occurs for higher angles of the crack in the Brazilian disk test, and the problem became size-dependent.
When the contact is not accounted, inconsistent results can be obtained using the classical expressions of Linear Fracture
Mechanics – such as a negative stress intensity factor in mode I. This maximum allowable angle is geometry dependent,
and can be obtained using Eqs. (1)–(4). The main focus of the present study was to propose a simple, general and size-
independent failure criterion for a particular polymer mortar using this kind of test. It is shown that the unilateral contact
with friction can be circumvented by using smaller crack angles in the tests and that a complete set of experimental data can
still be obtained.
A simple mixed-mode failure criterion is proposed with a good correlation with the experimental results. This criterion
only requires the knowledge of the critical stress intensity factor in mode I, for this particular polymer mortar. The basic idea
is not to replace more complex models that require sophisticated computational simulations, but to propose a very simple
and preliminary tool to verify if a given existing crack (in combined mode I and II) will propagate in a polymer mortar plate.
Of course, an intensive experimental program must still be performed in order to fully validate the proposed criterion.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Brazilian National Council for Technological and Scientific
Development (CNPq) and of the Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).
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[33] American Society for Testing and Materials – ASTM. C125-11b: standard terminology relating to concrete and concrete aggregates. ASTM; 2011.
[34] Sharpe. Springer handbook of experimental solid mechanics. New York: LLC, Springer Science and Business Media; 2008.
[35] Dally JW, Riley WF. Experimental stress analysis. 4th ed. McGraw Hill; 2005.
[36] Aliha MRM, Ayatollahi MR, Smith DJ, Pavier MJ. Geometry and size effects on fracture trajectory in a limestone rock under mixed mode loading. Engng
Fract Mech 2010;77:2200–12.
[37] Aliha MRM, Ayatollahi MR. Geometry effects on fracture behaviour of polymethyl methacrylate. Mater Sci Engng, A 2010;527:526–30.
[38] Torabi A. Failure curves for predicting brittle fracture in V-notched structural components loaded under mixed tension/shear: an advanced engineering
design package. Engng Solid Mech 2013;1(3):99–118.
[39] Torabi A. Wide range brittle fracture curves for U-notched components based on UMTS model. Engng Solid Mech 2013;1(2):57–68.
[40] Campagnolo A, Berto F. Tensile fracture analysis of blunt notched PMMA specimens by means of the strain energy density. Engng Solid Mech 2015;3
(1):35–42.
[41] Broek D. Elementary engineering fracture mechanics. 4th revised ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1997.
[42] Hertz H. Stresses and deflections of cylindrical bodies. Lepzig ed.; 1895.
[43] Erdogan F, Sih GC. On the crack extension in plates under plane loading and transverse shear. ASME J Basic Engng 1963;85:519–27.
[44] Hussain MA, Pu SL, Underwood J. Strain energy release rate for a crack under combined mode I and mode II. In: Paris PC, Irwin GR, editors. Fracture
analysis, ASTM STP 560, 2–28, Philadelphia, PA. American Society for Testing and Materials; 1993.
[45] Reis JML, Carvalho AR, Da Costa Mattos HS. Effects of displacement rate and temperature on the fracture properties of polymer mortars. Constr Build
Mater 2014;55:1–4.
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3.2.1 Capítulo de Libro (publicado)
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Chapter 11
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Abstract
Over the course of the last 50 years, a large number of major technological advances
have contributed to the development of higher-strength, high-performance materials
that provide excellent benefits. Nevertheless, in most cases, after a very short useful
life, these products become waste material and contribute to environmental degra‐
dation. This situation has created an environmental crisis that has reached global
proportions. In efforts to combat this issue and to promote sustainable development
and reduce environmental pollution, some investigations have focused on recycling
using innovative and clean technologies, such as gamma radiation, as an alternative
to conventional mechanical and chemical recycling procedures. In this context, the
reuse and recycling of waste materials and the use of gamma radiation are useful tools
for improving the mechanical properties of concrete; for example, the compressive
strength and modulus of elasticity are improved by the addition of waste particles
and application of gamma radiation. In this chapter, we propose the use of gamma
radiation as a method for modifying waste materials; for instance, polyethylene
terephthalate plastic bottles, automotive tire rubber, and the cellulose in Tetra Pak
containers, and their reuse to enhance the properties of concrete.
© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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1. Introduction
Concrete is the most widely used structural material in the world, due to its easy preparation
and low cost. Nevertheless, it has some disadvantages: a) pores, which can become entrance
points for water, water vapor, gases and chemical substances that might damage concrete; b)
the rapid deterioration in roughness of the concrete surface because of its high abrasion; c)
poor resistance to aggressive substances and salty water; and d) low resistance to heating. One
alternative for remediating these problems is the incorporation of polymeric materials, which
bind well with mineral aggregates that are the main components of concrete.
Currently, because of the more stringent legislation regarding the environment and the market
demand for environmentally friendly products, manufacturers are interested in developing
approaches aimed at reducing the environmental impact of industrial processes through
reductions in the amount of residues produced or by treating those that are inevitably
generated. The environmental damage caused during the extraction of raw materials, as well
as the high cost of extraction methods, provides good motivation for the use of industrial and
domestic residues as substitutes or complements of fresh materials in several areas of manu‐
facturing. The depletion of reliable, secure raw material reserves and conservation of non-
renewable sources are also incentives to develop ways to reuse waste materials.
In recent years, various tools and strategies have been proposed to meet environmental
challenges within the building industry, including a) increasing the use of waste materials,
especially those that are by-products of industrial processes; b) using recycled materials
instead of natural resources, which will make the industry more sustainable; and c) improving
durability as well as mechanical and other properties, thus reducing the volume of construc‐
tion replacement materials for structures that are damaged or destroyed.
In principle, the molecular structure of composite materials can be modified using gamma
radiation. Cross-linking and polymer degradation (by chain scission) can occur with radiation;
the chemical composition of the polymer is the key factor determining the extent to which
these processes occur. Materials with superior properties can be obtained from recovered scrap
polymer cross-linked by gamma radiation. The application of radiation technology in the
recycling of polymers is a good option from both an economic and ecological point of view.
The purpose of this chapter is to show how the combination of gamma radiation with waste
and recycling materials can provide alternative tools for improving the physical and chemical
properties of concrete. Waste materials such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, tire
rubber, and cellulose in Tetra Pak containers are discussed in terms of their physicochemical
modification by radiation and their use in enhancing the properties of concrete. Such infor‐
mation is focused on contributions to improving the care of the environment.
In light of the growing awareness of environmental concerns, the use of waste materials in
industrial processes is an attractive area of opportunity. The recovery and recycling of solid
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waste has long been the subject of research. Its use in building, road construction and paving
materials is beneficial in helping to reduce environmental pollution and as a solution to waste
disposal issues [1, 2].
Solid waste is classified by its chemical nature as organic and inorganic. Glass, ceramics and
metals such as aluminum used in packaging materials are the main components of inorganic
solid waste; others include zinc, copper and iron [3]. In the case of organic solid waste, one of
the most representative components is polyethylene terephthalate (PET). In 2007, the world’s
annual PET consumption comprised 250,000 million bottles (10 million tons of waste). In the
United States 50,000 million bottles are discarded in landfills each year. Since PET waste is not
biodegradable, it can remain in the environment for hundreds of years. PET waste can be used
to produce an unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) in the presence of glycols and dibasic acid.
This material can serve as a binder to produce polymer concrete (PC) with high compressive
strength. With a PET/glycol ratio of 2:1, higher compressive strength of polymer concrete can
be obtained [4].
Due to the increasing number of cars worldwide, the accumulation of huge volumes of
discarded tires has become a major waste management problem. In 2002, approximately 275
million of scrap tires were generated in the U.S., 110 million in Japan, and 37 million in the UK.
Over 100,000 tons of waste tires are generated annually in Taiwan. The final disposal of used
tires is a major environmental concern; landfills where tires are discarded represent a severe
fire and health hazard. Burning tire scrap to provide energy for the production of vapor or
electricity is one of the most common methods for eliminating tire waste [5]. The use of waste
tires as alternative fuel in cement furnaces has been established across the U.S. and Europe.
Applications utilizing waste tires include the bituminous hot mixing of pneumatic dust for
agglutinative modification in asphalt pavement [6, 7]. Another alternative is its use as a
substitute of fine or coarse aggregates in concrete. Its characteristics can improve the mechan‐
ical properties of concrete such as strength and modulus of elasticity over those achieved by
sand or stone.
Recycling of waste tires in the construction industry can aid in preventing environmental
pollution and in the design of more economically efficient buildings. In this respect, the use of
waste tire rubber in ready-mixed concrete has become increasingly popular globally, gener‐
ating significant research interest in the last two decades. A modest quantity of unprocessed
scrap tires is used to provide shock protection for marine platforms against the impact of waves
or ships. In some regions of the world, people still resort to burning tires, which produces
unacceptable levels of pollution. As such, new and innovative techniques to promote recycling
are important. Many countries avoid/forbid the stockpiling or landfill of waste tires, providing
a significant incentive for investigating recycling strategies. One of such strategies involves
the transformation of scrap tires into alternative aggregates, generating increased economic
value while reducing aggregate consumption [8].
Materials from tires are used in a variety of elastomers and plastic products, as well as for
asphalt rubber (AR) pavement. Oxychloride cement is a binder for rubberized concrete
mixtures. In a recent study, asphalt rubber was prepared in two ways, one with a gap-graded
design and the other using open gradation. The results showed satisfactory performance and
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the potential for household use. The wet process is the most suitable for normal asphalt
mixtures with ground tire rubber (GTR). It is worth mentioning that rubber asphalt mixtures
meet ASTM International specifications. Through the use of different concentrations of AR
and GTR, modified asphalt can represent a superior alternative to conventional mixtures for
use of local materials and paving techniques [7].
In a study,, the mechanical properties of polymer concrete made from reinforced epoxy
powder tire rubber were studied. Mixtures were optimized using direct neural modeling and
reverse neuronal modeling at minimal cost; in this case, the most important cost variable is
resin content. Direct neural modeling gave the optimum composition for obtaining maximum
values of compressive, flexural and tensile strength. Reverse neural modeling was used to
analyze the maximum values of mechanical properties obtained with varying concentrations
of the epoxy resin powder. The results show a high resistance to compression for composition
of 0.215 (weight fraction) for epoxy resin and 0.3 (weight fraction) of tire powder. The maxi‐
mum flexural strength of 0.23 was obtained with 0.17 resin tire powder epoxy, and maximum
tensile strength for the 0.24 and 0.17 resin [9].
The use of tire rubber as aggregate reduces the compressive strength of the concrete, which
may limit its usefulness in some structural applications. Nevertheless, it has desirable charac‐
teristics including lower density, higher impact resistance and toughness, higher ductility, and
better sound insulation properties. These features may be advantageous for a variety of
construction applications, such as access roads. A significant reduction in used tire waste could
be accomplished by using scrap tires for concrete-coated tire rubber particles. The use of
magnesium oxychloride makes it possible to produce high-strength concrete with better
elastomer adhesion characteristics and with significantly improved performance. Moreover,
the adhesion between tire rubber particles and other constituent concrete materials may be
improved by pretreatment of the aggregates of magnesium oxychloride tire rubber. Adhesion
depends on several factors, including size and concentration of tire particles, type of cement,
the use of chemical and mineral additives, and methods of pretreating tire rubber particles. In
terms of size, it is possible to use tire powder in both mortars and concrete [10]. Additionally,
higher amounts of textile fibers (from used tires in plasters and plasterboards of pressed
gypsum) cause less resistance reduction compared to plaster without additives.
Composites incorporate various waste materials, including granulated cork, cellulose fibers
from waste paper, and fibers from the recycling of used tires. Several studies have concentrated
on developing new composite materials through the use of different processes for composite
production, including simple molding or pressing.
The main components of natural fibers are cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin, with minor
concentrations of pectin, waxes and water-soluble substances. Linear cellulose molecules are
linked laterally by hydrogen bonds to form linear bundles, giving rise to a crystalline structure.
The degree of crystallinity is one of the most important structural parameters of cellulose. The
rigidity of cellulose fibers increases, while flexibility decreases, with an increasing ratio of
crystalline to amorphous regions. Moreover, the addition of cellulose fibers improves the
bending behavior of the composites [11].
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Some of the most important waste materials are those containing cellulose, for example,
Tetra Pak containers. Such packaging is made from three raw materials: paper (about 75
%), low-density polyethylene (about 20 %) and aluminum (about 5 %). Discarded contain‐
ers are recycled through a simple, well-established process called hydropulping. In this
process, the cellulosic fibers are separated from thin layers of polyethylene and alumi‐
num. Most of the waste from the paper industry is known as paper sludge (PS), which is
burnt and becomes PS ash. It is used as a soil improvement material and raw material for
cement. PS ash increases the strength of extremely stiff concrete with its high water
absorption capacity. It can be added to concrete, and undergoes a pozzolan reaction with
calcium hydroxide due to the hydration of cement, resulting in an obtained material with
increased compressive strength relative to concrete without PS ash. The material contains
38.1 % silica (SiO2), 21.4 % alumina (Al2O3) and 28.9 % CaO [11]. SEM images of PS ash
show particles with a rough shape, but no spherical particles are present. Typical concen‐
trations are 200 kg/m3 of cement and between 100 and 300 kg/m3 of PS ash. Plant fibers
and ‘‘man-made’’ cellulose fibers are used as substitutes for asbestos fibers in cement
matrices; they show comparable properties at lower cost, with values essentially depend‐
ent on the properties of the fiber and the adhesion between fiber and matrix [12].
For the preparation of composites, paper recovered from packaging has been utilized, with
the pulped fibers composed of 40 % resinous wood, 35 % Alfa grass (Stipa tenacissima L.) and
25 % leafy wood. The fiber sizes are classified as fine for values < 1.25 mm and coarse for values
of > 1.25 mm to < 5 mm. The results show that compressive strength decreases as pulped fiber
content increases, largely due to the fact that increasing fiber content induces more voids that
reduce weight and weaken the composite. When waste fibers are added to cement, the amount
of water for the preparation increases to compensate for the water absorbed by the fibers; thus
it is necessary to calculate the water/cement ratio (W/C). For a composite with 10 % fibers (W/
C = 0.56), SEM microscopy images show agglomerations of fibers in non-homogeneous
dispersion. When an additional water quantity is added (W/C = 0.64), better dispersion of fibers
is observed, but strength decreases because of the voids formed by the added water.
Cellulose fibers have been used as cement replacement in lightweight concrete; the fibers were
recycled from packages and mixed at concentrations up to 16 % by weight. Results of studies
showed that an increase in the fiber content led to a reduction in the compressive strength of
concrete and an improvement in thermal insulation properties, along with a homogeneous
distribution of fibers in the matrix, when an appropriate water−cement ratio was used. Better
thermal insulation of the cement matrix and low density provide for a lightweight construction
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material. This type of lightweight concrete is used for the construction of partition walls
(compressive strength 8.6 MPa), partitions, ceilings and roofs [13].
One important alternative for recycling PET materials is their use as concrete aggregate
substitutes. Given the technological demands in the construction area, studies are explor‐
ing the possibility of generating alternative materials with increasing functionality, lower
cost, and better physical, chemical and mechanical properties than those of conventional
materials [14, 15].
In the last two decades, virgin polymers used in road surfaces have shown advantages by
virtue of certain improved characteristics of these materials. Researchers have used different
polymers which, when properly mixed with asphalt, have resulted in improved road surface
yield and lifespan. However, waste polymers can be dangerous and remain in the environ‐
ment; and thus it is important that they would be recycled or reused effectively.
Road surface yield can be improved through modification of the asphalt with various sub‐
stances, most of which are virgin materials that are scarce and costly. An alternative is the use
of waste materials, such as plastic bottles, which can help reduce waste material and potentially
improve its yield [16]. To improve concrete ductility, PET fibers from plastic bottles have been
used. Results show that the addition of only a few fibers has a considerable influence on the
concrete post-cracking. Both type lamellar and type O fibers improve concrete hardness. The
latter helps to join together the concrete of each cracked section side [17].
Various studies have predicted the long-term creep of polymer concrete containing CaCO3 and
fly ash particles, as well as recycled PET resin, through short-term creep experiments. Results
have shown more rapid creep deformation of early-age concrete with PET in comparison to
ordinary concrete deformation. More than 20 % of the long-term creep occurs during the first
two days, and 50 % during the first 20 days. Furthermore, creep deformation of polymer
concrete without reinforcement is greater than that for concrete with CaCO3, due to the higher
surface area of CaCO3 particles. Reinforcement plays an important role in reducing polymeric
concrete deformation. Creep values increase with an increase in applied effort, although the
increases are not proportional, due to the viscoelastic, non-linear behavior of polymeric
concrete with recycled PET [18].
Concrete has been manufactured with up to 3 % recycled PET bottle fibers. The main concern
in the development of PET fiber is its alkali strength; however, research has found that this is
not an issue for fiber used in concrete. PET fiber has been used for tunnel pulverization and
covering, including motorbike tunnels. Future applications include underground structures
found in hostile environments, for example, near the coast or in the sea. Moreover, it can be
considered use as pavement in narrow, winding and steep roads. In a comparison study of
PET with other fibers, moisture levels of PET fibers were found to be lower than those of
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers but higher than polypropylene (PP) fibers [19].
To reduce cracks in concrete, PET particles obtained from recycled bottles, with lengths of 10,
15 and 20 mm and concentrations of 0.05, 0.18 and 0.30 % by volume, were added. Bending
and impact tests were carried out at 28 and 150 days. Significant effects on compression
strength values were observed with the addition of fiber. Moreover, Young modulus values
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were reduced with higher fiber content, where surface changes occurred according to the
increment of the fiber concentration.
In another study investigating curing time, it was observed that, at 28 days, the flexural,
impact and tensile strength were increased with the presence of fibers. However, at 150
days, this improvement was no longer present, as a result of fiber fragilization and
degradation in the alkaline concrete environment. After a year, porosity was increased in
concrete with fibers. In view of the important aspects of sustainability, such as the use of
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recycled materials in construction, fibers obtained from recycled PET bottles are an
alternative in reinforced concrete [14].
Gamma rays are produced in the disintegration of radioactive atomic nuclei and in the decay
of certain subatomic particles. The commonly accepted definitions of the gamma ray region
in the electromagnetic spectrum include some wavelength overlap. Gamma ray radiation has
wavelengths that are generally shorter than a few tenths of an angstrom, and gamma ray
photons having energies greater than tens of thousands of electron volts [20].
The effects of gamma radiation on polymers are usually evaluated through changes in their
chemical structure and mechanical behavior. These modifications occur as a result of reor‐
ganization of chemical bonds, which allows an increase in the degree of polymerization or
structural reticulation. Polymers have been modified with the purpose of optimizing proper‐
ties and increasing their compatibility in composite materials [21].
Gamma radiation is being used successfully today for post-consumer plastics recycling. Such
technology is feasible from both an ecologic and economic point of view. Among the most
important benefits of this application are the following: a) improvement in mechanical
properties and performance of recovering polymers or polymer mixtures, mainly through
cross-linking or modification of several combined-phase surfaces; b) more rapid polymer
decomposition, particularly by chain scission, which produces low molecular masses that can
be used as additives or raw materials in several processes; and c) advanced polymeric materials
production, designed specifically to be environmentally compatible [22].
The effects of gamma radiation on PET have been evaluated in several studies. For example,
the processes involved in PET degradation induced by radiation were assessed through the
use of electron spin resonance (ESR) and optical absorption spectroscopy. PET films were
irradiated at a temperature of −196 °C in darkness. Upon irradiation, the film changed to
reddish purple in color, which enabled the detection of PET radical ionic species by ESR [23].
In another work, a photosensitization process through gamma radiation was carried out;
changes were followed by infrared spectroscopy and reversed-phase high-performance liquid
chromatography. PET break zones were observed as well as the formation of terephthalic acid
as a result of radiolysis [24].
Results of studies on the effects of gamma radiation on packaging PET films in the 0–200 kGy
dose range demonstrate that diethylene glycol content increases at low doses (5–10 kGy) but
decreases at high doses (30–200 kGy). While molecular mass, intrinsic viscosity and terminal
carboxyl groups decrease slightly at doses greater than 60 kGy, permeability, thermal prop‐
erties, color, and surface resistivity are not significantly affected at any dose [25].
The morphology of the surfaces of recycled PET particles were evaluated by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM); particles varied in size from 0.5 to 3.0 mm and were obtained following a
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cutting process of PET bottles. After irradiation, several changes on the surfaces were observed,
as shown in Figure 2.
PET semicrystalline nature, with crystallinity increased as the radiation dose increases. UV
analysis revealed an increment in both activation and absorption energies, but the forbidden
band decreased at a higher applied dose [28]. Another study in which PET bottles were
irradiated at doses from 0 to 670 kGy, the results showed an increase in both crystallinity and
crystal size in the formed particles after irradiation [29].
The effects of gamma radiation on the mechanical and thermal properties of recycled PET
mixtures with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) were
studied using applied doses of 25, 50, and 100 kGy. The results showed maximum cross-linking
chains for 10 % of recycled PET irradiated at 100 kGy [30].
A study of thermoplastic aromatic polyesters (used for their electrical insulating capacity)
showed stable polymeric chains due to the presence of benzene rings upon irradiation with
doses up to 1 MGy. For higher doses (5 MGy), irradiated PET samples showed diminution of
molecular mass due to chain scissions [13].
In cellulose, there are amorphous zones along the microfibril length in which the crystallinity
is interrupted. These zones allow the penetration of chemicals into the microfibrils. Further‐
more, gamma radiation causes the breakdown of cellulose into shorter chains, which are water-
soluble, and also leads to an "opening of additional micro-cracks” that are easily penetrable
by water molecules.
Figure 3 shows SEM images of irradiated recycled cellulose. For non-irradiated cellulose,
smooth and homogeneous surfaces are observed, and some particles are present. When the
radiation dose is increased to 50 kGy, more dispersed particles and some cracks are observed;
for higher doses, more space between cellulose surfaces appears, together with small voids.
Such modifications can be attributed to the main effects produced by gamma radiation: scission
and cross-linking of molecular chains in cellulose.
In Figure 4, the surface characteristics of the recycled tire particles are shown. Non-irradiated
particles show a homogenous surface, while particles irradiated at 200 kGy show roughness
and voids on the fiber surfaces. Incremental doses of gamma radiation provoke more damage
to the surface, and voids are formed (greater than 100 μm). Finally, with irradiation at 300 kGy,
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the surface damage is more prominent, showing large cracks as a consequence of gamma
radiation.
Figure 4. SEM images of non- irradiated and irradiated tire rubber particles
The use of gamma radiation presents significant advantages for PET recycling and for
improving the mechanical properties of concrete, which can be explained by changes in the
chemical structure of the surface. Gamma radiation accelerates the initiation of polymerization
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270 Evolution of Ionizing Radiation Research
of a monomer into the ceramic matrix, and can provide considerable benefits, the most
important of which is better adhesion between the fibers and matrix [32]. The main mechanical
properties analyzed in concrete are strain, compression, and impact strength, deformation in
the yield point and breakdown, as well as deformation values and elasticity modulus.
Some studies have investigated the effects of ionizing radiation on polymer–ceramic composite
materials. For example, in gypsum/poly(methyl acrylate) composites, polymerization yield
increased with increasing radiation dose. A yield of 87-88 % was obtained at doses of 3–4 kGy.
Since this process is carried out at room temperature, there is substantial economy of heat
energy in addition to reduction in cost of keeping the composite under pressure. The pressure
allows much of the monomer (usually with high volatility) to fill the interstices of the ceramic
matrix during the conversion to ceramic–polymer composite.
There are a few studies on the effects of gamma radiation on concrete [33–35]. The effects
produced can be controlled through the use of appropriate radiation doses. For instance, it is
possible to modify the surface to obtain a rougher and more cracked material, allowing for
greater compatibility with the cementitious material [34].
For concrete with irradiated waste tire particles, compressive strength values followed similar
patterns. The values decreased as particle concentration increased, with values ranging from
7.4 to 17.5 MPa. The highest value was for concrete with 10 % of particles 2.8 mm in size; this
value was 27 % lower relative to that of the control concrete. Concretes with particles 2.8 mm
in size had larger values than those with 0.85 mm particles. The concretes with 20 or 30 % of
particles had higher values in comparison to concrete with non-irradiated particles. Thus, the
use of larger particle sizes is more efficient than using smaller particles.
The mechanical properties of concrete are dependent on the size and concentration of the waste
tire particles. Compressive and tensile strength values are reduced by the presence of these
particles, as they promote stress concentration zones and introduce tensile stresses into
concrete, resulting in rapid cracking and concrete failure. Nevertheless, in some cases,
improvement in mechanical properties is observed when gamma radiation is applied to the
waste tire particles. It appears that the best results are obtained in concrete with 10 % irradiated
particles 2.8 mm in size. Concrete with irradiated particles can receive up to 30 % of tire
particles, helping to reduce the final cost of the concrete.
Changes in mechanical properties may be related to morphological changes that occur in the
fracture zones of concrete specimens, as illustrated in Figure 5. For non-irradiated concrete, a
rough surface can be seen (0 kGy); when a radiation dose of 200 kGy is applied, the dispersed
particles are covered with irradiated tire fibers as a consequence of the scission of the polymer
chains. At a higher dose, 250 kGy, the tire rubber fibers continue to cover the hydrated cement
particles, as evidenced by the presence of cross-linked regions accompanied by larger quan‐
tities of ceramic particles. Strong bonds are progressively developed between tire particles and
cement matrix with incremental irradiation.
Concrete acting as a binder mixed with crumb rubber can produce more flexible concrete
blocks, thus providing a softer surface. The crumb rubber block produced for pedestrian
pavement also performs quite well in terms of both skid and abrasion resistance. One of the
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Waste tire rubber has been used to produce a composite used in a multilayer plate subjected
to the direct impact of a bullet, in which a sandwich of soft and hard materials is used to stop
the ballistic force. The role of the soft layer, which is rubberized concrete, is to act as a cushion
to absorb some of the total energy, thus reducing the impact force reaching the hard layer. This
results in a delayed response time at the beginning of the impact event, decreasing the
acceleration peak and lowering the vertical displacement of the center of mass [36].
The elongation of blends with different composition decreases when the dose is increased.
With a larger dose, more cross-linking is produced in the sample, which prevents structural
reorganization during drawing and reduces internal chain mobility and elongation [37].
In general, the higher thermal stability of the composition containing GTR compared to the
EPDM/HDPE blend is due to the oxidative degradation of the GTR and the formation of
carbonyl groups with higher dissociation energy than that of CH groups. SEM images of blends
with different composition show that EPDM and HDPE are non-compatible polymers.
However, upon irradiation, the surface is homogeneous and smooth, and exhibits no indica‐
tion of phase separation, due to the occurrence of cross-linking between the incompatible
polymers. The appearance of white particles across the SEMs indicates the non-compatibility
among EPDM, HDPE and GTR. Meanwhile, the presence of GTR does not affect the cross-
linked polymer matrix. These features increase with the ratio of GTR, which may explain the
decrease in tensile and hardness properties associated with the introduction of GTR [38].
Compressive strength values of concrete with waste cellulose were obtained. Concrete without
waste cellulose at 28 days of curing had the highest compressive strength value, 21.7 MPa.
Some general patterns were observed. The values gradually decreased as cellulose concentra‐
tion was increased. Concrete with 3 wt% of waste cellulose had a minimal difference (5 %)
relative to control concrete (without cellulose). This did not occur for concrete with 7 wt% of
waste cellulose, as it had a 47 % reduction. The compressive strength values increased with
longer curing time, no matter of the percentage of cellulose.
Such reductions in values can be explained in terms of waste cellulose added. The strength is
dependent on the amount of waste cellulose and water cement ratio (w/c). Cellulose, which is
hydrophobic in nature, can be substitute for up to 7 wt% of sand in the mixture, and thus a
greater amount of water is available to interact with the surface of non-hydrated grains of
cement particles. As a result, weak interfacial adhesion between cellulose and hydrated cement
particles is obtained, and consequently, a reduction in compressive strength values is ob‐
served.
Recovery of these materials has long been the subject of research. Other characteristics, such
as electric properties, have been studied for irradiated PET covering a dose range from 100
kGy to 2 MGy; both \conductivity and electric constant values increase with the increment of
irradiation dose. This raises the possibility of using PET films in electronic components such
as capacitors and resistors. With irradiation at low doses (8, 10 and 15 kGy), two types of
laminated PET films showed improved physical and mechanical properties at 15 kGy [3].
A study of concrete reinforced with waste PET particles found that non-irradiated concrete
followed typical behavioral patterns for compressive strain, increasing progressively with
incremental PET particle concentration, but no such pattern was observed for compressive
strength or elasticity modulus. Minimal value is obtained for compressive strength and
maximal value for elasticity modulus when adding 2.5 wt% of PET. Both compressive strength
and elasticity modulus values are maximal when adding 0.5 mm PET particles to concrete.
Different behaviors can be observed with irradiated versus non-irradiated concrete. When PET
concentration is increased, the compressive strength values diminish, and a notable reduction
in compressive strain is obtained. However, elasticity modulus exhibits the opposite behavior
with non-irradiated concrete. In this study, at 2.5 % PET, a minimal value was observed. With
regard to PET particle size, a similar behavior for non-irradiated concrete was observed:
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Gamma Radiation as a Recycling Tool for Waste Materials Used in Concrete 273
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maximal values for both compressive strength and elasticity modulus are obtained by adding
a 0.5-mm particle. In general, irradiated concrete containing PET particles had similar elasticity
modulus, higher compressive strength, and lower compressive strain values compared to non-
irradiated concrete.
Since compressive strength of concrete is one of the key structural design parameters used by
engineers, waste PET particles can provide suitable material for construction. A small amount
of PET (5.0 %) substituted for fine aggregates in the mix design can increase strength as much
as 23 % and diminish strain up to 26 %. Thus irradiation represents a useful tool and suitable
method for recycling waste PET.
In one study, recycled PET was incorporated into hydraulic concrete as a substitute for sand,
and the effects on mechanical properties (compressive strength, elasticity modulus and unitary
deformation) were evaluated. The considered variables were particle size (0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 mm),
volume PET concentration (1.0, 2.5 and 5.0 %) and gamma radiation dose (100, 150, and 200
kGy). Results showed that samples irradiated at a dose of 100 kGy exhibited greater compres‐
sion strength (between 15 and 35 %) than non-irradiated specimens. In addition, compression
strength decreased with increasing PET particle size, regardless of the percentage used [39].
In the case of samples irradiated at 150 and 200 kGy, a 50 % increase in mechanical strength
was observed in comparison to samples irradiated at 100 kGy. However, no difference in
strength was obtained for samples irradiated to 150 and 200 kGy with PET at any size or
concentration. With regard to elasticity modulus, values were similar for both types of
specimens, with an inverse relationship existing between mechanical property and PET
particle size: the smaller the size, the greater the elasticity modulus. Finally, with respect to
unitary deformation, the values obtained from irradiated specimens were between 20 and 70
% less than those of non-irradiated samples, as shown in Figure 6.
Reductions in compressive strain values are due to irradiation effects in both cement paste and
PET particles. Irradiation causes chain scission and generation of free radicals, which can cause
bonds to form in hydrated cement paste, and consequently produces a hard rather than ductile
material. A SEM image of irradiated concrete with 1.0 % PET 0.5 mm in size shows a homo‐
geneous distribution of PET particles; when PET particles are added (2.5 %), morphological
changes in the homogeneous regions of hydrated cement with irradiated PET particles can be
observed. With higher PET particle concentration, inhomogeneous surface areas with fewer
hydrated regions are detected. These morphological changes are not enough to cause a
significant difference in compressive strain values, as minimal differences are observed among
them, independently of PET size and concentration.
In a current study, gamma radiation and waste cellulose were investigated as tools for
improving the mechanical properties of cement concrete. Waste cellulose was obtained from
Tetra Pak packages. A simple and inexpensive process was sought, as well as a contribution
to environmental care. Prior to the preparation of concrete specimens, one set of waste cellulose
particles with an average size of 0.5 mm was obtained from Tetra Pak containers, and was used
in concentrations of 3, 5, and 7 wt%; these values were selected in order to avoid problems
related to homogeneity and workability.
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274 Evolution of Ionizing Radiation Research
Figure 6. Compressive strain of non-irradiated and irradiated concrete with PET particles
chemical reactions take place during gamma irradiation of polymeric materials —cross-linking
and degradation by chain scission, among others— but one or the other of these effects may
be predominant in some materials.
The formation of cross-linking of the polymeric chains in the cellulose under the effects of the
irradiation dose is highly significant, with impacts on the cement and water molecules. Cross-
linking is the most important effect of polymer irradiation, as it generally improves the
mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of concrete. Moreover, application of high-
energy irradiation to cellulose creates free radicals by the scission of the weakest bonds; such
radicals can react with certain molecules in the cement matrix. The interaction between calcium
silicate hydrate (formed during the hydration process) and the cellulose present in the pores
during irradiation polymerization enhances the interphase bonding, resulting in improved
mechanical strength.
5. Conclusions
Waste or recycled materials and gamma radiation are both useful tools for improving the
mechanical properties of concrete, where waste materials are substitute for gravel or sand. In
particular, the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity values exhibit improvement
with the addition of certain concentrations of waste materials and the application of a specific
gamma radiation dose. In contrast, non-irradiated concrete possesses poor mechanical
properties.
In the case of concrete with PET particles, for non-irradiated samples, compressive strain
typically increases progressively as PET particle concentration increases, while compressive
strength and elasticity modulus are not affected by changes in concentration. With regard to
PET particle size, maximal values of both compressive strength and modulus of elasticity are
dependent upon PET particle size. Different behaviors are observed for irradiated versus non-
irradiated concrete. When PET concentration is increased, compressive strength values are
reduced. More notable is the reduction in compressive strain. However, the elasticity modulus
exhibits opposite behavior to that shown for non-irradiated concrete. Lastly, with SEM images,
the influence of gamma radiation on waste materials and its effect on the mechanical properties
of concrete is corroborated.
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276 Evolution of Ionizing Radiation Research
Acknowledgements
Financial support of the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico (UAEM), Toluca, by
grant UAEM 2015/3223FS is acknowledged.
Author details
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120
3.2.2 Capítulo de Libro (publicado)
Editores:
Gonzalo Martínez Barrera
Juan Bosco Hernández Zaragoza
Teresa López Lara
Carmina Menchaca Campos
ISBN: 978-84-943418-0-9
DL: B-8093-2015
DOI: htp://dx.doi.org/10.3926/oms.211
Capítulo 7
“Materiales Provenientes del
Reciclamiento de Envases de Tetra Pak y
su Uso en Concreto”
121
Capítulo 7
Doi: htp://dx.doi.org/10.3926/oms.247
123
122
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
1. Introducción
124
123
Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
La Figura 2 muestra un esquema simple para clasifcar los materiales compuestos que, en
esencia, consta de tres divisiones: compuestos reforzados con partculas, compuestos reforzados
con fbras y compuestos estructurales.
Las partculas de la fase dispersa de los materiales compuestos reforzados con partculas son
equiaxiales (es decir, las dimensiones de las partculas son aproximadamente iguales en todas las
direcciones); la fase dispersa delos materiales compuestos reforzados con fbras tene la
geometría de una fbra (es decir, una relación longitud/diámetro muy alta). Los materiales
compuestos estructurales son materiales compuestos combinados con materiales homogéneos.
124
Figura 2. Clasifcación de materiales compuestos
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
Dos aspectos muy importantes en el desarrollo de materiales compuestos son: a) La unión entre
el refuerzo y la matriz, y b) La transmisión de esfuerzos mecánicos entre el refuerzo y la matriz.
Además de las característcas del refuerzo y de la matriz, las propiedades de los materiales
compuestos dependerán de cómo sea la interfase (la región de contacto) entre estos dos
componentes. Si la interfase es débil, la transferencia de carga de la matriz al refuerzo no será
efciente y/o bien será la matriz la que termine soportando las cargas (y fallando, puesto que no
es muy resistente), o se producirán huecos entre la matriz y las fbras, lo cual llevará a la rotura
del material compuesto.
Lograr una buena adhesión entre la matriz y el refuerzo no es tarea fácil, ya que en general se
trata de materiales diferentes (polímero, cerámico, metal), y una adecuada adhesión depende
del contacto íntmo de los átomos en la superfcie de uno y otro componente (Prikryl, Cech,
Balkova & Venek, 2003) . Razón por la cual se ha desarrollado toda un área de aditvos que
permiten mayor compatbilidad con la matriz, y aumenten la adhesión entre los componentes
del material compuesto.
Se sugiere tener a la matriz en estado líquido e “impregnar” perfectamente al refuerzo. De esta
forma se consigue una buena unión en la interfase. La impregnabilidad o mojado se defne como
la capacidad de un líquido para extenderse por una superfcie sólida. Una buena impregnabilidad
signifca que la matriz fuirá perfectamente por la superfcie del refuerzo y desplazará todo el
aire. En general, cuando la tensión superfcial del refuerzo es igual o mayor que la de la matriz, se
garantza una buena impregnación.
Existen diferentes tpos de unión en la interfase: a) Unión mecánica, en donde las rugosidades
entre ambas superfcies dan lugar a la unión. A mayor rugosidad más efectva es la unión en la
interfase. Este tpo de unión es poco efectva para esfuerzos de tracción pero efectva para
esfuerzos cortantes; b) Unión electrostátca, acontece cuando una de las superfcies tene carga
positva y la otra negatva; c)Unión química, se da cuando la superfcie del refuerzo tene grupos
químicos compatbles con grupos químicos de la matriz. La resistencia de la unión depende del
número de uniones por unidad de área; y d) Unión mediante interdifusión, en este tpo de unión
la superfcie del refuerzo y de la matriz tenen cadenas poliméricas que se difunden entre ellas.
La resistencia de esta unión depende del número de entrelazamientos entre cadenas y aumenta
con la adición de disolventes o plastfcantes.
Las interacciones matriz/refuerzo en materiales compuestos con refuerzo de fbras pueden ser
estudiadas a cuatro escalas distntas dependiendo del rango de distancias matriz/refuerzo en el
que se produzcan: a) A escala molecular las interacciones entre las distntas fases están
determinadas por las propiedades químicas de cada una de las fases, de manera que entre ellas
se producen enlaces químicos, interacciones de tpo ácido-base y fuerzas de Van der Waalsb) A
escala microscópica, las interacciones interfaciales se describen en función de ciertos parámetros
cuando el material compuesto es sometdo a algún esfuerzo; c) A escala mesoscópicase
considera la infuencia de la distribución del refuerzo en la matriz, mientras que d) A escala
macroscópica se trata al material compuesto de manera global como si fuese una mezcla
homogénea (Mäder, Zhandarov, Gao, Zhou & Nut, 2002).
Otro planteamiento considera al material compuesto como un conjunto de tres partes: refuerzo
(FI), agente de acoplamiento (SI) y matriz (MI). La modifcación de la interfase a través de la
126
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Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
modifcación química o fsica de la superfcie del refuerzo es uno de los métodos más comunes
que se emplean con objeto de mejorar la adhesión matriz/refuerzo y mejorar las propiedades
fnales del material compuesto (Kim & Gao, 2000; Gonon, Chabert, Bernard, Van Hoyweghen &
Gerard, 1997).
Existen diversos estudios sobre la variación de la resistencia de la interfase de materiales
compuestos, en algunos de ellos se modifca la superfcie del refuerzo por inclusión de un agente
de acoplamiento silano y/o otros agentes compatbilizantes con distntos tpos de matrices. La
modifcación de la estructura superfcial del refuerzo hace que la interfase generada sea más
resistente, es decir, que tenga mayor capacidad para transferir cargas mecánicas desde la matriz
al refuerzo. La inclusión del agente de acoplamiento sobre la superfcie del refuerzo, además de
mejorar las interacciones refuerzo/matriz, genera una superfcie químicamente actva gracias a
los grupos funcionales que pueden estar presentes en el silano. Estos grupos funcionales pueden
interaccionar químicamente con la matriz o pueden servir como puntos de anclaje de
marcadores (González-Benito, Cabanelas, Aznar, Vigil, Bravo & Baselga, 1996; Lenhart, Dunkers,
Van Zanten & Parnas, 2000).
Es de suma importancia obtener información acerca de los mecanismos de generación de la
interfase, lo que implica estudiar factores como la reactvidad entre la matriz y la superfcie del
refuerzo, el grado de miscibilidad entre la matriz y el agente de acoplamiento, o la difusión
preferencial de algunos componentes de la matriz hacia la superfcie del refuerzo ( Olmos &
González-Benito, 2010).
En los años 50’s Ruben Rausing diseño los envases de Tetra Pak siguiendo uno de los
fundamentos de la sustentabilidad: ahorrar más de lo que cuesta, en el aspecto económico,
ambiental y social.
Con el desarrollo de la industria del plástco se ha promovido indiscriminadamente el uso de
envases de Tetra Pak, los que después de una muy corta vida útl se convierten en basura,
contribuyendo a deteriorar el medio ambiente. Una vez que cumplió su función como
contenedor para alimentos presenta un valor agregado, ya que puede: a) ser incinerado para
producir energía, b) reciclado, para la fabricación de papel, y c) utlizado para fabricación de
láminas y productos aglomerados.
Los envases de Tetra Pak se reciclan de diferentes maneras. El proceso general comienza con el
acopio de los envases Tetra Pak para su posterior ”repulpeado”. En este proceso se logra separar
los envases en dos componentes: a) celulosa y b) polietleno-aluminio. Estos materiales se
pueden comprimir para formar material aglomerado o separarlo en sus diferentes componentes
para la fabricación de otros productos (Figura 3).
126
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
En 2012 Tetra Pak produjo 173,234 millones de envases para 170 países. Tiene en operación
8707 máquinas de envasado y 67 mil unidades de procesamiento, además de 11 centros de
investgación y desarrollo y reporto más de 11 mil millones de euros en ventas en 2012
(htp://www.tetrapak.com).
En 2013, la tasa de reciclaje de envases de Tetra Pak en el mundo alcanzó un 24,5% con casi 43
mil millones de envases reciclados. Respecto a México, esta tasa se ha incrementado
notablemente. En el 2003 el porcentaje de reciclaje era de 0.9% mientras que para 2013 se
incrementó hasta 24% (htp://www.tetrapak.com).
A la fecha, las escasas tecnologías que existen para el reciclaje de envases de Tetras Pak están
basadas en la molienda mecánica y el uso de sustancias químicas para la reducción de tamaño y
la separación de los materiales respectvamente. No se han propuesto tecnologías limpias para el
reciclaje.
Los envases de Tetra Pak para bebidas están consttuidos de papel (75%), polietleno de baja
densidad (20%) y aluminio (5%); y conformados por 6 capas (Figura 4), cuyas funciones son:
• Primera capa: Polietleno (protege el envase de la humedad exterior).
• Segunda capa: Papel (brinda resistencia y estabilidad).
• Tercera capa: Polietleno (ofrece adherencia fjando las capas de papel y aluminio).
• Cuarta capa: Aluminio (evita la entrada de oxígeno, luz y pérdida de aromas).
• Quinta capa: Polietleno (evita que el alimento esté en contacto con el aluminio).
• Sexta capa: Polietleno (garantza por completo la protección del alimento).
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Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
El papel utlizado en la elaboración de envases Tetra Pak es celulosa (C 6H10O5)200 la cual se forma
por la unión de moléculas de β-glucopiranosa mediante enlaces β-1,4-O-glucosídico.
Las propiedades del polietleno, aluminio y polialuminio utlizado en la elaboración de envases se
muestra en las Tablas 1, 2 y 3.
Propiedad Valor
Punto de Fusión, ºC 110
Densidad
a 20ºC 0.92
a 50ºC 0.90
a 80ºC 0.87
a 110ºC 0.81
Módulo de Young, Kg/cm2 1.6
Resistencia a la tracción a 20 ºC, Kg/cm2 150
Dureza Brinell (bola de 2 mm de diám. y 3 kg) 2
Tabla 1. Propiedades fsicas y mecánicas del polietleno
Propiedad Valor
Densidad, kg/cm3 2.69
Punto de fusión, °C 660
Punto de ebullición, °C 2.51
Conductvidad eléctrica, S/m 37.7 x 106
Conductvidad térmica, W/(K·m) 237
Módulo elástco, GPa 70
Tabla 2. Propiedades del aluminio 128
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M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
Propiedades Valor
Tensión a la ruptura, MPa 10.9
Elongación a la ruptura, % 38.8
Modulo elástco, MPa 177.6
Resistencia al impacto Izod, MPa 302.0
Conductvidad eléctrica, S/cm 1.11 x10-8
Densidad, g/cm3 0.9
Tabla 3. Propiedades del polietleno-aluminio de los envases de Tetra Pak
Figura 5. Hidropulpeador
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Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
Mostafzur Rahman (Rahman, Islam, Ahmed & Salam, 2012) estudió los efectos causados por
materiales poliméricos reciclados como susttutos de los agregados en el concreto, en partcular
los polímeros: poliuretano-formaldehído (PUF) proveniente de envases, y polietleno de alta
densidad (HDPE) proveniente de actvidades comerciales. Los resultados muestran que la
inclusión de estos materiales reciclados disminuyen signifcatvamente la densidad, la porosidad
y la absorción de agua de los bloques de concreto y mampostería. El concreto elaborado con PUF
tene menor densidad que el elaborado con HDPE, el cual se recomienda utlizar en estructuras
fotantes y construcciones que requieran de materiales ligeros.
Para mejorar las propiedades mecánicas del concreto sin incrementar los costos pueden
utlizarse minerales de desecho de las industrias. Por ejemplo, las cenizas pueden susttuir
parcialmente al cemento debido a sus propiedades. Algunas ventajas de las cenizas en
comparación con el cemento ordinario, son tener un menor calor de hidratación, debida que la
reacción química es retardada y diferente; así como, presentar incremento de la homogeneidad
debido a la eliminación de hidróxido de calcio. El calor de hidratación se puede mantener por
debajo de los 15°C y con ello disminuir las tensiones térmicas y mantenerlas por debajo de la
fuerza de agrietamiento de los concretos jóvenes. Hong Kong es el líder en esta tecnología y ha
logrado susttuir el 93.7% del cemento en diversas construcciones.
El vidrio puede ser utlizado como un agregado en el concreto, pero debe estar sujeto a las
mismas especifcaciones que la de los agregados naturales, por ejemplo, uno de los requisitos es
estar libre de cantdades perjudiciales de impurezas orgánicas; lo que implica que el vidrio debe
lavarse correctamente. El vidrio tene la capacidad de no absorber agua, esto es una ventaja para
concretos con aplicaciones específcas. Debido a la falta de absorción de agua y las superfcies
lisas de las partculas de vidrio utlizadas en el concreto, las propiedades de fujo son mejores que
las de concreto con agregados naturales. Esto se traduce en una mejor trabajabilidad y una
menor relación agua-cemento; además de obtenerse mejoramiento en la resistencia mecánica y
propiedades como la durabilidad (sin la ayuda de un superplastfcante). Otra ventaja del vidrio
es su excelente dureza y resistencia a la abrasión lo que lo hace un material adecuado para
adoquines, baldosas, y otras aplicaciones sometdas a un gran desgaste por el uso.
El concreto reforzado con fbras se utliza cada vez más en toda la industria de la construcción. La
adición de grandes cantdades de fbras cortas y uniformemente dispersadas, tene el efecto de
modifcar las propiedades de la matriz de concreto. Las principales ventajas son mejora en la
ductlidad y la capacidad de disipación de energía, que han sido ampliamente documentados en
la literatura. Quizás aún más importante es el papel que juegan las fbras para controlar las
fsuras de la matriz de concreto. Las fbras retardan la generación y propagación de las grietas,
por lo que la permeabilidad del concreto puede ser conservada, lo que se traduce en una mayor
durabilidad. Los tpos más comunes de fbras son de acero, polipropileno, nylon y las resistentes
a los álcalis como son las fbras de vidrio. Todas estas fbras se fabrican usualmente de material
virgen. Sin embargo, las fbras provenientes de materiales reciclados podrían mejorar algunas
propiedades mecánicas de concretos.
limita sus aplicaciones; la débil adherencia a ciertos materiales; baja resistencia a medios
agresivos y al agua salada; así como pobre aislamiento eléctrico. Razones por las cuales se han
buscado y propuesto tecnologías alternas que toman en cuenta otros materiales, como los
polímeros.
El Concreto Polimérico (CP) es un material compuesto que consta de la mezcla de una resina
termoestable y agregados minerales, a diferencia del agua y el cemento tpo Portland utlizados
en la elaboración del cemento hidráulico. En la actualidad el concreto polimérico se emplea en el
área de la construcción para la elaboración de pisos industriales, mesones para baños y cocinas,
saunas, tanques para almacenamiento de agua y prefabricados para el campo de la construcción;
igualmente se usa en aplicaciones eléctricas tales como: aisladores para transmisión de alta
tensión, soporte para aislamiento de bujes, núcleos sólidos para aislamiento (Mayra, Valencia &
Mina, 2010).
Las característcas y propiedades (Tabla 4),de los concretos poliméricos son:
• Ligereza: de una decima parte a una tercera parte del peso del concreto hidráulico.
• Alta resistencia: Resistencia a la compresión, fexión y tracción desde tres hasta cinco
veces mayor que la del concreto hidráulico.
• Menores costos de instalación - fácil de manejar, no son necesarios equipos especiales.
• Estable bajo condiciones de congelación / descongelación.
• Baja absorción de agua: menor del 1% según la norma ASTM D-570.
• Resistente a la corrosión: Resistente a ataques químicos, al ambiente y otras formas de
deterioro.
• Rentable: Supera a los materiales convencionales por más tempo de vida útl.
• No conductor: No requieren de conexión a terra.
Propiedad Valor
Resistencia a la compresión, kg/cm2 900-1500
Resistencia a la tensión, kg/cm2 120-190
Resistencia a la tensión, kg/cm2 190-300
Peso específco, kg/dm3 1.8-2.3
Módulo de elastcidad, kg/cm2 0.4-0.45 x106
Absorción de agua, % 0.3-0.6
Conductvidad térmica, Kcal/mh°C 0.8-2.6
Resistencia a la abrasión, cm3/cm2 0.025
Resistencia a la temperatura, °C -40 -100
Tabla 4. Propiedades del Concreto Polimérico
Las matrices utlizadas en concretos poliméricos sonplástcos termoestables, tales como resinas
epoxi, resinas de poliéster ortofálicas, de poliéster isofálicas, vinil éster o bisfenólicas; las de
poliéster son las más ampliamente utlizadas (Tabla 5).
133
134
Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
El concreto polimérico es de tres a cinco veces más resistente que el concreto hidráulico ha
alcanzado valores de hasta 150 MPa (Martnez-Barrera, Villareal, Vigueras-Santago, Hernandez-
Lopez & Brostow, 2008), pero su fragilidad en el punto de fallaha limitado su utlidad en
aplicaciones donde intervienen grandes cargas, por lo que es necesario mejorar la rigidez y el
comportamiento esfuerzo-deformación, primordialmente en lo referente al módulo de Young.
Para solucionar este problema se han propuesto: a) llevar a cabo procesos de post-curado,
consistente en calentar a cierta temperatura el concreto por determinado tempo, realizándolo
por etapas, o bien b) reforzarlo con fbras, entre las que se encuentran las fbras sintétcas o las
naturales; cuya infuencia se ve refejada en el mejoramiento de propiedades como la rigidez y la
ductlidad (Martnez-Barrera, Vigueras-Santago, Martnez-López, Ribeiro, Ferreira & Brostow,
2013).
Uno de los problemas asociados con el uso de resinas de poliéster en la elaboración de concretos
poliméricos es su contracción volumétrica de 6 a 8% durante el curado. Esto limita tener una
superfcie de alta calidad, así como adecuada estabilidad dimensional. Razón por la cual, las
propiedades fsicas de concretos a base de resina poliéster son controladas por el material de
refuerzo (Davallo, Pasdar & Mohseni, 2010).
En concretos poliméricos también se han realizado estudios con materiales reciclados. João
Marciano (Reis, 2009) estudió el comportamiento mecánico de concretos elaborados con resina
poliéster, arena virgen y arena reciclada proveniente de procesos de fundición (metalúrgicos).
Los resultados muestran mejor comportamiento mecánico, principalmente en la resistencia a la
compresión, que el concreto polimérico elaborado con arena reciclada. También João y Marco
(Reis, Silva-Nunes & Cerri-Triques, 2009) estudiaron el efecto de fbras textles de poliéster
recicladas procedentes de la industria del vestdo. Se analizaron las propiedades mecánicas, la
fractura y la propagación de grietas del concreto polimérico. Los resultados muestran
mejoramiento en propiedades mecánicas con el uso de las fbras recicladas.
Son escasos los estudios que involucran el uso de los materiales de reciclo de envases de Tetra
Pak. No obstante, M. Hidalgo (Hidalgo, 2011) estudió la viabilidad del uso de polietleno de baja
densidad (LDPE) y el aluminio reciclados de envases Tetra Pak para la fabricación de tableros
rígidos utlizando una prensa caliente. El polieteleno-aluminio es se modifcado al compactarlo a
46 Psi de presión y una temperatura de 180°C. Los resultados muestran mayor resistencia a la 134
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
tracción y menor absorción de agua; con los cuales los tableros producidos pueden ser utlizados
en la fabricación de bobinas de cable.
Hashem Rhamin (Rahamin, Madhoushi, Tabarsa & Firuzabad, 2013) publicó un estudio sobre la
elaboración de paneles con densidad de 1 g/mm 3 a partr de envases Tetra Pak. El material
compuesto fue elaborado con laminillas de 5x5 cm de Tetra Pak y resina de Melanina Urea
Formaldehido (MUF). Se utlizaron tres diferentes concentraciones (0, 9 y 12 %) con dos tempos
de prensado (10 y 12 min). Se evaluaron las propiedades fsicas y mecánicas (absorción de agua,
hinchamiento, módulo de ruptura, módulo de elastcidad). Los resultados muestran
mejoramiento en las propiedades mecánicas.
En un estudio realizado por los autores, se evaluó el efecto de las partculas de Tetra Pak en
concretos poliméricos. Se realizaron ensayos de compresión y fexión, así como el cálculo del
módulo de Young; con la fnalidad de conocer el efecto de las partculas en la deformación.
Las probetas de concreto polimérico se elaboraron con resina poliéster insaturada ortofálica y
arena sílice. Cuyas propiedades se mencionan en las Tablas 6 y 7.
Propiedades Especifcaciones
No volátles 60 – 64 %
Viscosidad Brookfeld 100 cPs
Número ácido base solución 12 – 26 mg KOH /g muestra
Tiempo de gel 6 – 8 minutos
Temperatura de exotermia 145 – 163 °C
Tiempo de curado (máximo) 16 minutos
Peso específco 9.10 – 9.30 lb/gal
Estabilidad a105 °C (mínimo) 4 horas
Tabla 6. Propiedades de resina poliéster insaturado
Propiedad Valores
Densidad aparente, (g/cm3) 1.56
Densidad de partculas, (g/cm3) 2.6
Dureza (escala de Mohs) 7.0
Diámetro promedio D50, (µm) 245
Tabla 7. Propiedades fsicas de la arena sílice
Las probetas de concreto polimérico se elaboraron con 80% de arena sílice y 20% de resina
poliéster, y con diferentes porcentajes de partculas de Tetra Pak (2, 4 y 6 % en peso). Como se
muestra en La Tabla 8.
135
Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
136
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
A pesar de que las partculas de Tetra Pak son sometdas a un proceso de secado antes de la
preparación de las probetas de concreto, no es posible eliminar completamente la humedad de
la celulosa. Esta humedad puede actuar como un agente de separación en la interfase entre las
partculas de Tetra Pak y la matriz de resina.
137
Figura 7. Deformación en el punto de máximo esfuerzo de concretos poliméricos con partculas de Tetra Pak
138
Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
138
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
Figura 9. Deformación en el punto de máximo esfuerzo de concretos poliméricos con partculas de Tetra Pak
139
Materiales provenientes del reciclamiento de envases de Tetra Pak y su uso en concreto
Figura 10. Módulo de Young de concretos poliméricos con partculas de Tetra Pak
5. Conclusiones
Son evidentes los esfuerzos de investgadores por utlizar materiales reciclados de los envase de
Tetra Pak en el concreto, no obstante se requiere un número mayor de investgaciones sobre el
tema. En el caso de estudio presentado se observa que las partculas de Tetra Pak reciclados
disminuyen gradualmente las propiedades mecánicas del concreto polimérico. La resistencia a la
compresión disminuye 6% pero la resistencia a la fexión sólo 0.1% respecto al concreto sin
partculas recicladas. Más aún la deformación de los concretos respecto a esfuerzos de fexión es
casi constante, es decir se ha logrado disminuir los valores en fexión, lo que indica que el
concreto tende a ser más elástco. Prueba de ello es la disminución del módulo de Young, el
parámetro más importante para diagnostcar la dureza o fexibilidad de un material. Futuras
investgaciones estarán enfocadas al estudio de la adhesión entre las partculas de Tetra Pak y la
matriz polimérica, con la cual, en principio, es posible mejorar la transferencia de esfuerzos entre
ambos materiales.
Agradecimientos
A la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM) por el apoyo económico a través del
proyecto UAEM 3408/2013M (Megaproyecto). Así como al Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y
Tecnología de México (CONACYT), por la beca mixta otorgada para la realización de una estancia
de investgación en Brasil a Miguel Martnez López, alumno del Doctorado en Ciencias
Ambientales de la UAEM.
140
M. Martnez-López, G. Martnez-Barrera, C.E. Barrera-Díaz, F. Ureña-Nuñez
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concrete. Journal of Environmental Research and Development, 6(3), 884-887.
Atlla, M., Murathan, A.S., Guru, M., & Balbasi, M. (2007). Manufacturing low density boards
from waste aluminium. Materials and Design, 28(7), 2215-2217.
htp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2006.06.014
Davallo, M., Pasdar, H., & Mohseni, M. (2010). Mechanical Propertes of Unsaturated Polyester
Resin. Internatonal Journal of ChemTech Research, 2(4), 2113-2117.
Gonon, L., Chabert, B., Bernard, A., Van Hoyweghen, D., & Gerard, J.F. (1997). New Coupling
Agents as Adhesion Promoters at the Poly(Phenylene Sulfde)/Glass Interface-Studies with Micro
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González-Benito, J., Cabanelas, J.C., Aznar, A.J., Vigil, M.R., Bravo, J., & Baselga, J. (1996). Surface
characterizaton of silanized glass fbers by labeling with environmentally sensitve fuorophores.
Aplied Polymer, 62(2), 375-384.
Hardjito, D., Cheak, C.C., & Ho Lee, C.H. (2008). Strength and Setng Times of Low Calcium Fly.
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Hidalgo, M. (2011). Manufacturing rigid board by packaging waste containing aluminum and
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Kim, J.K., & Gao, S.L. (2000). Interface adhesion and interlaminar fracture resistance of
carbon/PEEK composites infuenced by cooling rate. Key Engineering Materials, 187(2),
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Korkmaz, A., Yanik, J., Brebu, M., & Vasile, C. (2009). Pyrolysis of the Tetra Pak. Waste
Management, 29(11), 2836-2841. htp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.07.008
Lenhart, J.L., Dunkers, J.P., Van Zanten, J.H., & Parnas, R.S. (2000). Characterizaton of sizing layers
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Mäder, E., Zhandarov, S., Gao, S.L., Zhou, X.F., & Nut, S.R. (2002). Bond strength measurement
between glass fbers and epoxy resin at elevated temperatures using the pull-out and push-out
techniques. The Journal of Adhesion, 78(7), 547-569. htp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00218460213737
Martnez-Barrera, G., Vigueras-Santago, E., Martnez-López, M., Ribeiro, M.C., Ferreira, A.J.M., &
Brostow, W. (2013). Lufa fbers and gamma radiaton as improvement tools of polymer concrete.
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(2008). Compressive Strength of Gamma-Irradiated Polymer Concrete. Polymer Composites,
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Mayra, E., Valencia, P., & Mina, E. (2010). Caracterización fsicomecánica de concreto polimérico
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142
3.2.3 Capítulo de Libro (publicado)
Editores:
Marco A. Camacho López,
Susana Hernández López,
Gonzalo Martínez Barrera, Dora
A. Solís Casados, Enrique
Vigueras Santiago
Toluca, México: EÓN.
(2015).
ISBN: 978-607-9426-28-6
“Materiales de reciclo y su
uso en el mejoramiento del
concreto”
143
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 221
capítulo 8
MaterIales de recIclo y su uso
en el MejoraMIento del concreto
IntroduccIón
E l siglo xxI ha conllevado un uso casi ilimitado de materiales, los cuales forman
parte de los productos elaborados que utilizamos a diario, entre los que se
encuentran muebles, juguetes, piezas de automóvil, bolígrafos, ropa y recipientes
para alimentos, sólo por mencionar algunos. Los materiales han contribuido al
desarrollo de la tecnología en beneficio de la humanidad, gracias al mejoramien-
to de sus propiedades físicas y químicas. Sin embargo, con el desarrollo de la in-
dustria durante los últimos 50 años, se ha promovido indiscriminadamente el uso
de ciertos materiales, los que después de una muy corta vida útil se convierten
en basura, contribuyendo a deteriorar el entorno; mas aún, al degradarse en-
tran en las cadenas alimenticias de animales, plantas y del mismo ser humano.
El impacto ambiental negativo ha conducido al planteamiento de metodolo-
gías alternativas, limpias e innovadoras encaminadas a la reducción y reuso de
materiales. Se han efectuado investigaciones que ofrecen un atractivo costo-bene-
ficio derivado del ahorro de energía empleada en su fabricación, y que presentan
propiedades consistentes e incluso optimizadas que permiten la disposición a
largo plazo de residuos.
mica, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Km.12 de la carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco, San
Cayetano 50200, México.
* <gonzomartinez02@yahoo.com.mx>. Tel.: 217-1806321.
2 Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, BartinUniversity, 74100 Bartin, Turquía.
144
222 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
Atendiendo a la regla de las “tres erres” (reducir, reciclar y reusar), cuya meta
consiste en establecer una sociedad orientada al reciclaje, en este capítulo se abor-
da la problemática de los materiales de desecho y su uso en el mejoramiento del
concreto, abriendo un panorama hacia la sustentabilidad del mismo, al producir
un concreto ambientalmente amigable.
145
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 223
Figura 1
Reciclaje de residuos sólidos urbanos
Textiles
1600 Plásticos
Metales
Vidrio
Reciclaje (miles de toneladas)
1400 Papel y
cartón
1200
1000
800
600
400
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Año
146
224 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
rística más interesante es ser un material de ingeniería, lo que significa que puede
ser diseñado para satisfacer especificaciones de rendimiento, más que cualquier
otro material disponible actualmente. Pero esta popularidad viene acompañada
de un alto precio que es a menudo pasado por alto: para volúmenes absolutos
que se producen cada año, el concreto tiene un enorme impacto en el medio am-
biente. Se requieren grandes cantidades de recursos naturales para producir esos
miles de millones de toneladas de concreto al año. Cabe mencionar que en dicha
producción por cada tonelada de cemento Portland se libera casi una tonelada
de CO2 a la atmósfera, aunado al gran consumo de agua y energía. Se estima que
en todo el mundo la industria del cemento es responsable de 7% de todo el CO2
generado (Malhotra, 2000: 226). Otro problema que conlleva el concreto son
los desechos que produce cuando es demolido, lo cual incrementa el deterioro
ambiental.
Al parecer la industria del concreto se ha convertido en una víctima de su
propio éxito, por lo cual se enfrenta a grandes retos. En los últimos años se
han propuesto diferentes estrategias para cumplir con los desafíos ambienta-
les que representa la industria del concreto, las cuales se pueden resumir en
147
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 225
148
226 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
Tabla 1
Razón pet: Arena: Grava en función del tamaño
Tamaño del pet (mm) pet Arena Grava
0.5 1 3 18
1.5 1 1 6
3.0 1 0.5 3
Tabla 2
Materiales utilizados en la elaboración del concreto (en gramos)
pet Arena Cemento Portland Grava Agua
3.26 914.7 420 1152 413
8.17 909.8 420 1152 413
16.33 901.6 420 1152 413
149
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 227
Figura 2
Resistencia a la compresión de concreto con partículas de pet reciclado
24
PET (% vol)
22 1.0
Resistencia a la compresión (MPa)
2.5
5.0
20
18
16
14
12
Figura 3
Módulo de elasticidad de concreto con partículas de pet reciclado
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
0.5 1.5 3.0
Tamaño de PET (mm)
150
228 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
151
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 229
Figura 4
Resistencia a la compresión de concreto con celulosa reciclada
22
21
20
Resistencia a la compresión (MPa)
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
0 3 5 7
Celulosa reciclada (% en peso)
Figura 5
Módulo de elasticidad de concreto con celulosa reciclada
1.9
2.8
Módulo de elasticidad (GPa)
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
0 3 5 7
Celulosa reciclada (% en peso)
152
230 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
Mientras países europeos como Alemania, Francia y Austria reciclan hasta 60%
de sus llantas usadas, en México prácticamente no existe tal reciclado, debido a la
escasa conciencia ambiental y a un inexistente sistema de control. De los aproxi-
madamente 30 millones de llantas que se desechan anualmente en México, 91%
termina en lotes baldíos, ríos y carreteras; 5% se renueva, 2% se usa en la gene-
ración de energía y el 2% restante se deposita en centros de acopio (Taha et al.,
2008). Dicha situación no sólo arruina los paisajes sino que convierte estos lugares
en criaderos de mosquitos, ratas, moscas y cucarachas, propagadores de enferme-
dades como el dengue y la rabia; además de ser sitios propensos a la generación
de incendios difíciles de controlar. Algunos incendios de llantas han durado me-
ses. Varios estudios han demostrado que la quema de llantas libera sustancias de
máxima peligrosidad para el ser humano, como monóxido de carbono, furanos,
tolueno, benceno y óxido de plomo.
Probablemente el método de reciclaje de llantas usadas de mayor beneficio al
medio ambiente es la renovación o recauchutado. Sin embargo, el método más
común es su uso como fuente de energía para producir vapor, electricidad o calor
a través de la combustión. Su valor como combustible es considerablemente me-
nor que el del material original, lo que constituye un ejemplo de “downcycling”.
Aunque algunas de éstas u otras aplicaciones han sido más o menos exitosas, no se ha
logrado reducir de manera considerable la cantidad de llantas viejas almacenadas.
Un uso diferente de las llantas de desecho es como agregados en la industria
de la construcción. Se pueden agregar en la mezcla de concreto, de asfalto calien-
te o en forma de polvo en pavimentos asfálticos. Desde un punto de vista estric-
tamente económico, una simple sustitución de agregado fino implica un cierto
grado de “downcycling”, el cual puede evitarse si se realiza un estudio serio que
involucre las propiedades del elastómero, que son por lo regular superiores a las
de la arena natural o de la grava.
En un estudio realizado se utilizó elastómero de llanta reciclada en diversas
formas: triturado, picado, molido o en polvo, con tamaños entre 75 micras y
4.5 cm. Los valores obtenidos de las propiedades mecánicas del concreto una
vez agregados los elastómeros mostraron diferencias significativas en el módulo
153
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 231
0.027 2.5
0.026
2.0
0.025
Módulo de elasticidad (GPa)
Deformación (mm/mm)
0.024
1.5
0.023
1.0
0.022
0.021
0.5
0.020
0.019 0.0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
Concentración de fibras (% en vol) Concentración de fibras (% en vol)
a) b)
154
232 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
Figura 7
Resistencia a la compresión de concreto con fibras de llanta recicladas
Tamaño de
24 partícula
reciclada (mm)
22
0
Resistencia a la compresión (MPa)
20
0.85
18 2.80
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30
Partículas de llanta reciclada (%)
155
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 233
de concreto sin fibras y concreto con 10% de partículas, de sólo 3%. Inclusive se
puede considerar agregar 30% de partículas, ya que la diferencia es de 15% res-
pecto a los valores de concreto sin partículas.
Figura 8
Resistencia a la flexión de concreto con fibras de llanta recicladas
Tamaño de
8 partícula
reciclada (mm)
0
0.85
Resistencia a la flexión (MPa)
7 2.80
4
0 10 20 30
Partículas de llanta reciclada (%)
156
234 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
El vidrio no absorbe agua, lo cual es una ventaja para el diseño de una mezcla
de concreto para una aplicación específica. Debido a la falta de absorción de agua
y las superficies lisas de las partículas de vidrio, las propiedades de flujo de
concreto fresco son mejores que las de concreto con agregados naturales. Esto se
traduce en una mejor trabajabilidad y una menor relación agua-cemento, además
de obtenerse mayores valores en la resistencia mecánica y en propiedades como
la durabilidad, sin la ayuda de un plastificante.
Si el vidrio se va a utilizar como un agregado de concreto, debe estar sujeto
a las mismas especificaciones a las que son sujetos los agregados naturales. Por
ejemplo, uno de los requisitos es que el vidrio esté libre de impurezas orgánicas,
lo que implica que debe ser lavado correctamente. Otra ventaja del vidrio es su
excelente dureza y resistencia a la abrasión, que le permite ser adecuado para
adoquines, baldosas y otras aplicaciones sometidas a un gran desgaste por el uso.
La durabilidad y estabilidad química del vidrio es excelente, por lo que se puede
producir concreto de alta resistencia y durabilidad.
El vidrio finamente molido ha demostrado tener propiedades puzolánicas y
puede servir como un excelente material de relleno para producir concreto de
alto rendimiento (Jin, 1998: 811). A este vidrio molido se le conoce como “arena”
o “arena blanca” y se utiliza primordialmente como sustituto del agregado en la
pavimentación con asfalto (glasphalt), también como relleno en drenajes, carre-
teras y tuberías.
Las propiedades cementantes de las cenizas se conocen desde hace mucho tiem-
po. Sin embargo, su uso generalizado se logró sólo después de que las regulacio-
nes de la calidad del aire obligaron a instalar plantas “lavadoras” y precipitadores
electrostáticos para atrapar las partículas finas, las que anteriormente se libera-
ban al medio ambiente. Los porcentajes de uso de las cenizas varían mucho de
un país a otro, desde un mínimo de 3.5% para la India hasta un máximo de 93.7%
para Hong Kong (Malhotra, 2000: 226).
Las cenizas tienen una serie de ventajas en comparación con el cemento or-
dinario, por ejemplo, su calor de hidratación es menor (debido a que la reacción
química es retardada y diferente). Se ha logrado construir losas de cimentación de
tamaños de (36 x 17 x 0.61), libres de grietas, mediante la sustitución de 57%
del cemento por cenizas, manteniendo la temperatura durante la hidratación
por debajo de los 15°C. El enfriamiento de las losas es cuidadosamente contro-
lado, por lo que las tensiones térmicas se mantienen por debajo de la fuerza de
agrietamiento de los concretos (Mehta et al., 2000: 27). Otra investigación sobre
157
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 235
158
236 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
159
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 237
de poliéster son las más utilizadas debido a sus bajos costos y su alta resistencia
a la corrosión. Los agregados minerales pueden ser silicatos, piedra de cuarzo,
grava, piedra caliza, granito, arcilla, cenizas, arena sílice, entre otros.
Ligereza: entre una décima o una tercera parte del peso del concreto hi-
dráu lico.
Alta resistencia: resistencia a la compresión, flexión y tracción desde tres hasta
cinco veces mayor que la del concreto hidráulico.
Menores costos de instalación y de fácil manejo, no son necesarios equipos
especiales.
Estables bajo condiciones de congelación y descongelación.
Baja absorción de agua: menor de 1% según la norma ASTM D-570.
Resistentes a la corrosión: resistentes a ataques químicos, al ambiente y otras
formas de deterioro.
Rentables: superan los materiales convencionales por más tiempo de vida útil.
Son no conductores, no requieren de conexión a tierra.
160
238 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
conclusIones
161
Materiales de reciclo y su uso en el mejoramiento… 239
referencIas
162
240 Gonzalo Martínez, Enrique Vigueras, Miguel Martínez y Osman Gencel
163
3.3 Resultados no publicados.
Se pueden observar tres picos principales a 2θ = 15°, 22° y 34°; sobre los cuales
se realizó el análisis. Los picos a 2θ=15° están asociados a los planos
cristalográficos (110). Mientras que los picos a 2θ = 22° y 34° a los planos
cristalográficos (002) y (023), respectivamente.
Figura 14. Difractogramas de celulosa reciclada e irradiada a 100, 200, 300, 400 y
500 kGy
164
La cristalinidad de la celulosa varía con la dosis de radiación aplicada; los
materiales poliméricos presentan comportamientos cíclicos al ser sometidos a
radiación gamma. La mayor cristalinidad se obtiene a dosis de 200 kGy.
165
Figura 16. Distancia interplanar de los picos conforme se incrementa la dosis de
radiación gamma.
La celulosa tiene diferentes arreglos cristalinos, entre ellos dos fases coexistentes:
celulosa Iα y celulosa Iβ en una proporción que varía dependiendo de su origen.
La celulosa Iα es metaestable y se puede convertir en celulosa Iβ mediante
diferentes tratamientos [55].
166
Figura 17. Espectro infrarrojo de las fibras de celulosa sin irradiar e irradiadas a
diferentes dosis, en la región de 4000 a 2000 cm-1.
Para que una vibración produzca una absorción de infrarrojo, debe causar un
cambio en el momento dipolar de la molécula. Así, la intensidad de una banda de
infrarrojo de la celulosa reciclada será mayor cuanto mayor sea el cambio en el
momento dipolar con la vibración.
167
Figura 18. Diferencia en transmitancia respecto a la celulosa sin irradiar.
168
Figura 19. Espectro infrarrojo de las fibras de celulosa sin irradiar e irradiadas a
diferentes dosis, en la región de 2000 a 700 cm-1.
Banda Asignación
-1
(cm )
1640 H2O absorbida
1370 flexión (OH)
1050 (C-OH)
169
Figura 20. Diferencia en transmitancia respecto a la celulosa sin irradiar.
Figura 21. Micrografías de fibras de celulosa irradiada a 100, 200, 300, 400 y 500
kGy..
170
CAPÍTULO 4
DISCUSIÓN GENERAL
El uso indiscriminado de envases para contener todo tipo de productos ha
ocasionado la generación de grandes cantidades de desechos, los cuales no
reciben un tratamiento encaminado a su reciclaje. Entre estos materiales se
encuentran los envases Tetra Pak de los cuales sólo se recicla el 24% (2014).
Esto condujo a plantear en este trabajo de tesis el reciclaje del Tetra Pak mediante
una metodología limpia y alternativa: la radiación gamma; y posteriormente su
reuso como agregado en el concreto polimérico.
Los resultados obtenidos para las probetas control fueron de 90 y 23 MPa para la
resistencia a la compresión y a la flexión, respectivamente. El módulo de
elasticidad fue de 32 GPa, mientras que los valores de deformación fueron: a)
0.036 mm/mm para esfuerzos de compresión y b) 0.0135 mm/mm para esfuerzos
de flexión.
171
La deformación de concretos control (sin irradiar) no varía considerablemente al
modificar el tamaño de partícula de Tetra Pak; ésta propiedad depende de la
concentración de las partículas, es decir la deformación disminuye al incrementar
la concentración de partículas (para esfuerzos de compresión y flexión).
172
a) El módulo se incrementa ligeramente (2 GPa) al adicionar 1% de partículas
e irradiar con 100 kGy. Para dosis mayores el módulo de elasticidad
disminuye ligeramente.
b) La concentración de partículas es el factor determinante en concretos
irradiados. Al incrementar la cantidad de partículas el módulo disminuye
considerablemente para todas las dosis de radiación.
c) Al irradiar a 100 kGy los módulos se incrementan ligeramente; para dosis
mayores los módulos disminuyen ligeramente.
173
c) Respecto a la radiación, la resistencia a la compresión se incrementa hasta
15% en concretos con 2% y 200 kGy.
d) La resistencia a la flexión se modifica ligeramente con la adición de 1 y 2%
de celulosa pero disminuye considerablemente con 4 y 6% (hasta 81%)
e) El módulo de elasticidad se incrementa con la adición de celulosa hasta
18% para concretos con 1% y 100 kGy de radiación.
f) Las deformaciones debidas a esfuerzos de compresión se incrementan
hasta 40% cuando se adiciona 2% de celulosa. Al superar esta
concentración las deformaciones disminuyen considerablemente.
g) Las deformaciones por esfuerzos de flexión no varían considerablemente
hasta concentraciones de 4%. Para 6% en peso, la deformación disminuye
hasta 54%.
174
CONCLUSIONES.
175
Del análisis de difracción de rayos X, se concluye que:
176
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